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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

BY 

PROFESSOR  FRANK  SOULE 
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THE 

PRINCIPAL 


THEIR  CHARACTERISTIC   PROPERTIES. 


BY 


CHARLES  HENRY  SNOW,    C.E.,  Sc.D., 

Dean  of  the  School  of  Applied  Science,  New  York  University; 
Member  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  etc. 


FIRST    EDITION. 

FIRST    THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK : 

JOHN   WILEY   &   SONS. 

LONDON:  CHAPMAN   &   HALL,  LIMITED. 

1903. 


Engineering 
Library 


Copyright,  1903, 

BY 
CHARLES  HENRY  SNOW. 


,#«* 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,    PRINTER,  NEW  YORK. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following1  is  a  brief  untechnical  presentation  of  gen- 
eral features  characterizing  economically  important  species  of 
wood.  It  is  the  result  of  notes  originally  brought  together 
from  many  already  existing  sources  and  later  augmented,  and 
verified  so  far  as  possible  for  the  present  use,  by  personal 
observation.  The  work  of  preparation  has  not  been  as  simple 
as  the  result  would  indicate,  and  although  great  care  has  been 
taken  to  check  each  fact,  errors  do  no  doubt  exist,  although 
it  is  not  believed  that  there  are  important  ones. 

Engineers  while  writing  upon  woods  have,  save  excep- 
tionally, emphasized  strength  beyond  most  other  properties. 
Other  works  for  expert  foresters  or  botanists  are  of  necessity 
too  special,  voluminous,  fragmental,  or  technical  for  the  casual 
student.  Some  popular  books  on  trees,  as  distinct  from 
woods,  are  available.  The  present  form  is  distinct  from  these 
and  is  intended  for  those  who  are  not  foresters  or  botanists, 
but  who  use  woods  or  desire  knowledge  of  their  distinguishing 
properties.  Allusions  to  trees,  historical  and  other  references, 
aside  from  those  directly  regarding  woods,  are  made  for 
completeness  and  in  order  to  mark,  distinguish,  or  separate 
the  species. 

Acknowledgments  are  particularly  due  to  the  publications 
of  the  U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry,  to  Prof.  Sargent's  studies  as 
set  forth  in  Vol.  IX  of  the  Tenth  U.  S.  Census,  to  Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow,  to  Mr.  Raphael  G.  Zon  for  suggestions  and  for  tech- 
nical revision,  to  the  Northwestern  Lumberman  and  other  trade 

iii 


800507 


iv  PREFACE. 

journals,  to  many  dealers,  who  have  been  uniform  in  their 
courtesy,  and  incidentally  to  Mr.  Morris  K.  Jesup,  whose  mag- 
nificent collection  of  woods  at  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural 
History  has  been  available  to  the  writer  as  to  others.  These, 
with  other  sources  of  information  acknowledged  by  the  writer, 
and  suggested  to  others,  are  suitably  arranged  in  the  following 
list.  Of  the  1 5 5  illustrations,  138  are  original,  the  drawings 
having  been  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the  writer  from 
actual  specimens  by  Mr.  Irving  T.  Worthly  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity and  several  students  of  New  York  University,  and  the 
photographs  by  Mr.  John  Hopfengartner,  Jr.,  of  Westchester, 
New  York  City.  Other  illustrations  are,  so  far  as  possible, 
acknowledged  in  place. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART    I. 
INTRODUCTION. 


PAGE 


Section  I.     Wood.    Definitions.    "  Structure."    Weights.     Coefficients.    Uses. 

Botanical  and  Common  Nomenclatures.     General  Information,  etc I 

PART  II. 
EXOGENOUS  SERIES. 

Section  2.  Definitions.  Cellular  Structure.  Annual  Rings.  Medullary  or 
Pith  Rays.  Pith  Cavities.  Sap  wood  and  Heartwood.  Cross,  Radial 
and  Tangential  Distinctions.  "  Quarter  Sawn  "  Surfaces.  Common  and 
Botanical  Subdivisions,  etc 7 

BROADLEAF  OR  HARDWOODS. 

Section  3.  Distribution.  Distinguishing  Characteristics.  General  Informa- 
tion, etc *  •  •  •  IO 

OAK  (Quercus). 

Section  4.     Distribution.     Historical.     Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of 

Wood.     Commercial  Divisions.      Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc.  II 

a.  White  Oak  (Quercus  alba) 13 

b.  Cow  Oak  (Quercus  michauxii) 14 

c.  Chestnut  Oak  (Quercus  prinus) ; 15 

d.  Post  Oak  (Quercus  minor) 16 

e.  Bur  Oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa) 17 

f.  White  Oak  (Quercus  garryana) 18 

g.  Red  Oak  (Quercus  rubra) 19 

h.  Pin  Oak  (Quercus  palustris) 20 

»'.   Spanish  Oak  (Quercus  digitata) 21 

j.  Black  Oak  ( Quercus  velutina) 22 

k.  Live  Oak  (Quercus  virens) 23 

/.  California  Live  Oak  (Quercus  agrifolia 24 

v 


vi  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

m.  Live  Oak  (Quercus  chrysolepis) 25 

n.  English  Oak  (Quercus  robur  var.  pedunculata) 26 

ASH  (Fraxinus). 

Section  5.  Distribution.  Historical.  General  Properties.  Commercial  Di- 
visions. Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 27 

a.  White  Ash  (Fraxinus  americana) 29 

l>.  Red  Ash  (Fraxinus  pubescens) 30 

f.  Blue  Ash  (Fraxinus  quadrangulata) 31 

d.  Black  Ash  (Fraxinus  nigra) 32 

e.  Green  Ash  (Fraxinus  viridis) 33 

f.  Oregon  Ash  (Fraxinus  oregona) 34 

ELM  (Ulmus). 
Section  6.     Distribution.     Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood.    Uses. 

Landscape  Value  of  Trees,  etc 35 

a.  White  Elm  (Ulmus  americana) 36 

b.  Cork  Elm  (Ulmus  racemosa) 37 

c.  Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm  (Ulmus  pubescens) 38 

d.  Wing  Elm  (Ulmus  alata) 39 

MAPLE  (Acer). 
Section  7.     Distribution.    Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood.    Uses. 

Maple  Sugar.    Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 40 

a.  Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple  (Acer  saccharum) 42 

b.  Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum) 43 

c.  Red  Maple,  Swamp  Maple  (Acer  rubrum) 44 

d.  Oregon  Maple  (Acer  macrophyllum) 45 

e.  Boxelder,  Ash-leaved  Maple  (Acer  negundo) 46 

WALNUT  (Juglans). 

Section  8.  Historical.  Black  Walnut  in  Gun  Stocks.  Structural  and  Physi- 
cal Properties  of  Woods.  Burl.  White  Walnut.  English  Walnut.  Bo- 
tanical Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 47 

a.  Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigra) , 49 

b.  White  Walnut,  Butternut  (Juglans  cinerea) 50 

HICKORY  (Hicoria). 

Section  9.  Distribution.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of  Wood. 
Uses.  "  Second-growth"  Hickory.  Pecan.  Botanical  Characteristics  of 

Trees,  etc 51 

a.  Shagbark  (Hicoria  ovata) 52 

b.  Pignut  (Hicoria  glabra) 53 

c.  Mocker  Nut  (Hicoria  alba) , , . 54 

d.  Pecan  (Hicoria  pecan) 55 

CHESTNUT;  CHINQUAPIN  (Castanea). 
Section  IO.     Distribution.       Structural   and    Physical    Properties   of  Wood. 

Uses.     Famous  Trees.     Nuts.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc. .  56 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  vn 

I'AGE 

a.  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata) 58 

b.  Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila) 59 

BEECH,  IRONWOOD  (Fagus)  (Carpinus,  Ostrya,  etc.). 

Section  n.  Distribution.  Early  Uses  of  Beech.  Structural  and  Physical  Prop- 
erties of  Woods.  Uses.  Enumeration  of  Species  Affording  "  Ironwood."  60 

a.  Beech  (Fagus  atropunicea) 62 

b.  Ironwood,  Blue  Beech  (Carpinus  caroliniana) 63 

c.  Ironwood,  Hop  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  virginiana) 64 

SYCAMORE  (Platanus). 

Section  12.  Confusion  of  Names.  Historical,  Structural  and  Physical  Prop- 
erties of  Wood.  Uses.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 65 

a.  Sycamore,  Buttonball  (Platanus  occidentalis) 66 

b.  California  Sycamore  (Platanus  racemosa) 67 

BIRCH  (Betula). 

Section  13.  Distribution.  History  and  Uses  of  Bark.  Structural  and 
Physical  Properties  of  Wood.  Uses  of  Wood.  Commercial  Divisions  of 

Wood.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 68 

a.  White  Birch  (Betula  populifolia) 70 

b.  Paper  Birch  (Betula  papyrifera) 71 

c.  Red  Birch  (Betula  nigra) 72 

d.  Yellow  Birch  (Betula  lutea)   73 

e.  Sweet,  Cherry  Birch  (Betula  lenta) 74 

LOCUST;  MESQUITE  (Robinia,  Gleditsia,  Prosopis). 

Section  14.  Confusion  of  Names.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties  of 
Wood.  Uses.  Structural  Value  of  Black  Locust.  Durability  and 

Peculiarities  of  Mesquite.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 75 

a.  Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia) 77 

b.  Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  triacanthos) 78 

c.  Mesquite  (Prosopis  juliflora) 79 

WHITEWOOD  OR  TULIP-TREE  WOOD;  POPLAR  OR  COTTON  WOOD;  CUCUMBER- 
TREE  WOOD;  BASSWOOD  (Liriodendron),  (Populus),  (Magnolia),  (Tilia). 

Section  15.  Structural  Relations.  Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Wood.  Con- 

fusion  of  Names.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 80 

a.  Whitewood,  Tulip-tree  or  Yellow  Poplar  (Liriodendron  tulipifera).  82 

b.  Poplar,  Large  Tooth  Aspen  (Populus  grandidentata 83 

c .  Cottonwood  (Populus  deltoides) 84 

d.  Black  Cottonwood  ( Populus  trichocarpa) 85 

e.  Cucumber- tree  ("Magnolia  acuminata) 86 

f.  Basswood,  Linden  (Tilia  americana) 87 

WILLOW  (Salix). 

Section  16.  Distribution.  Historical.  Properties  and  Uses  of  Wood.  Bo- 
tanical Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 88 

a.  Black  Willow  (Salix  nigra) 89 


viii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CATALPA  (Catalpa). 

PAGE 

Section  17.  Structural  Values.  Properties  of  Woods.  Botanical  Character- 
istics of  Trees,  etc 9° 

a.  Catalpa  (Catalpa  speciosa) 91 

b.  Catalpa  (Catalpa  catalpa) 92 

SASSAFRAS;  MULBERRY  (Sassafras),  (Morus). 

Section  18.  Historical.  Properties  of  Sassafras  Wood.  Properties  of  Mul- 
berry Wood.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 93 

a.  Sassafras  (Sassafras  officinale) 94 

b.  Mulberry,  Red  Mulberry  (Morus  rubra) 95 

BUCKEYE;  HORSE  CHESTNUT  (Aesculus). 

Section  19.     Structural  and  Botanical  Relationship.     Localities.     Properties 

and  Uses  of  Wood.   96 

a.  Horse  Chestnut  (Aesculus  hippocastanum) 97 

b.  Ohio  Buckeye  (Aesculus  glabra) 97 

t.  Sweet  Buckeye  (Aesculus  octandra) 98 

GUM  (Liquidambar,  Nyssa). 

Section  20.     Botanical  and  Structural  Relationships.     General  Properties  and 

Uses  of  Woods.     Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees 99 

a.  Sweet  Gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua) 100 

b.  Sour  Gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica) 101 

c.  Cotton  Gum,  Tupelo  (Nyssa  aquatica) 102 

HOLLY;  BOXWOOD;  LIGNUMVHVE  (Ilex),  (Buxus  Cornus),  (Guajacum),  etc.). 

Sectional.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties;  also  Uses  of  Holly,  of  Box- 
wood, and  of  Lignumvitae  Woods.  Sources.  Substitutes  for  Boxwood, 
i.e.,  Flowering  Dogwood,  Mexican  Persimmon  and  Rose  Bay.  Botanical 
Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 103 

a.  Holly  (Ilex  opaca) 105 

b.  Dogwood  (Cornus  florida) 106 

c.  Lignumvitse  (Guajacum  sanctum) 107 

LAUREL  (Magnolia,  Rhododendron,  Arbutus,  etc.). 

Section  22.     Application  of  Name  Laurel.     Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses 

of  Several  Products 108 

a.  Mountain  Laurel  (Umbellularia  californica) 109 

b.  Madrofta  (Arbutus  menziesii) no 

PERSIMMON;  OSAGE  ORANGE;  CHERRY  (Diospyros),  (Madura),  (Primus). 

Section  23.     Range.     Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Persimmon  Wood, 

of  Osage  Orange  Wood,  of  Cherry  Wood in 

a.  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana) 112 

b.  Osage  Orange  (Maclura  aurantiaca) 113 

c.  Cherry  (Prunus  serotina) 114 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  ix 

TEAK;  GREENHEART  (Tectona),  (Nectandra). 

PAGB 

Section  24.     Asiatic  Teak.     African  Teak.    Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses 

of  Teak  Wood.    Structural  Peculiarities  and  Uses  of  Greenheart 115 

a.  Teak  (Tectona  grandis) 116 

b.  Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiali) 117 

MAHOGANY  (Swietenia,  Khaya,  Soymida,  Cedrela,  etc.). 

Section  25.  Applications  of  Name  Mahogany.  Sources  of  Supply.  Struc- 
tural and  Physical  Peculiarities.  Also  Uses  of  Wood,  Veneers,  Spanish 

Cedar,  White  Mahogany 118 

a.  Mahogany  (Swietenia  mahagoni) 120 

b.  White  Mahogany  (Tabeuia  Donnell-Smithii) 121 

£.  Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar  (Cedrela  odorata) 122 

EUCALYPTUS  (Eucalyptus). 

Section  26.  Localities.  Common  Names.  Great  Size.  Rapid  Growth  and 
Sanitary  Properties  of  Trees.  Structural  Properties  of  Jarrah,  Karri 
and  Tuart  Woods.  Botanical  Characteristics  of  Trees,  etc 123 

a.  Jarrah  (Eucalyptus  marginata) 125 

b.  Karri  (Eucalyptus  diversicolor) 126 

c.  Tuart  (Eucalyptus  gomphocephala) 127 

d.  Blue  Gum,  Fever  Tree  (Eucalyptus  globulus) 128 

NEEDLELEAF  OR   SOFT  WOODS. 

Section  27.     Localities.       Historical.       Structural    and  Physical  Properties. 

Uses.     Botanical  Characteristics.     General  Information 129 

PINE  (Pinus). 

Section  28.  Structural  and  Physical  Properties.  Uses.  Botanical  Char- 
acteristics    130 

Soft  Pine. — Structural  and  Physical  Properties.     Importance.     Sources  of 

Supply,  etc 131 

Hard  Pine. — Structural  and  Physical  Properties.     Importance.     Source  of 

Supply,  etc 132 

a.  White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus) 134 

b.  White  Pine  (Pinus  flexilis) 135 

c.  Sugar  Pine  (Pinus  lambertiana) 136 

d.  White  Pine  (Pinus  monticola) 137 

e.  Georgia,  Hard,  Yellow  or  Longleaf  Pine  (Pinus  palustris) 138 

f.  Cuban  Pine  (Pinus  heterophylla) 139 

g.  Shortleaf  Pine,  Yellow  Pine  (Pinus  echinata) 140 

h.  Loblolly  Pine  (Pinus  tfeda) 141 

i.  Bull  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Western  Pine  (Pinus  ponderosa) 142 

j.  Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa1) 143 

k.  Pitch  Pine  (Pinus  rigida) 144 

/.   Northern  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Dantzic  Pine  (Pinus  sylvestris) 145 


x  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

KAURI  PINE  (Dammara). 

PAGB 

Section  29.     Descriptive.     Structural  and  Physical  Characteristics.      "Kauri 

Gum,"  etc 146 

a.  Kauri  Pine  (Dammara  australis) 147 

SPRUCE  (Picea). 

Section  30.     Localities.     Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities.     Commercial 

Divisions.     Botanical  Characteristics 148 

a.  Black  Spruce  (Picea  nigra) 150 

b.  Red  Spruce  (Picea  rubens) 150 

c.  White  Spruce  (Picea  alba) 151 

d.  White  Spruce  (Picea  engelmanni) 152 

e.  Sitka  Spruce  (Picea  sitchensis) 153 

DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  (Pseudotsuga). 

Section  31.     Great  Size  of  Trees.     Localities.     Structural  and  Physical  Pecu- 
liarities of  Wood.     Botanical  Characteristics 154 

a.  Douglas  or  Red  Spruce  or  Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia) 155 

FIR  (Abies). 

Section  32.     Sources  of  Supply.     Structural  and  Physical  Characteristics. 

Confusion  of  Names.     Botanical  Characteristics 156 

a.  Balsam  Fir  (Abies  balsamea) 157 

b.  Great  Silver  Fir  (Abies  grandis) 158 

c.  White  Fir  (Abies  concolor) 159 

d.  Red  Fir  (Abies  magnifica) 160 

e.  Red  Fir.     Noble  Fir  (Abies  nobilis) 161 

HEMLOCK  (Tsuga). 

Section  33.     Distribution.      Structural   and  Physical  Peculiarities  of  Wood. 

Botanical  Characteristics 162 

a.  Hemlock  (Tsuga  canadensis) 163 

b.  Western  Hemlock  (Tsuga  heterophylla) 163 

LARCH;  TAMARACK  (Larix). 

Section  34.     Historical.       Sources.       Structural   and    Physical   Peculiarities 

Botanical  Characteristics 164 

a.  Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix  americana) 165 

b.  Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix  occidentalis) 166 

CEDAR  (Cedrus,  Thuya,  Chamsecyparis,  Libocedrus,  Juniperus). 

Section  35.     Confusion  of  Names.     Historical.     Structural  and  Physical  Pecu- 
liarities of  Wood.     Uses.      Commercial  Divisions,  etc 167 

a.  Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana) 169 

b.  Juniper  (Juniperus  occidentalis) 170 

r.  White  Cedar,  Arborvitse  (Thuya  occidentalis) 171 

d.  Canoe  Cedar,  Arborvitae,  Giant  Arborvitae  (Thuya  plicata) 172 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE 

e.  White  Cedar  (Chamsecyparis  thyoides) 173 

f.  Port    Orford    Cedar,     Lawson    Cypress     (Chamaecyparis    law- 

soniana) 1 74. 

g.  Yellow    Cedar,  Yellow    Cypress,    Sitka    Cypress    (Chamsecyparis 

nootkatensis) 175 

h.  Incense  Cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens) 176 

CYPRESS  (Cupressus,  Taxodium). 

Section  36.     Confusion  of  Names.      Sources.      Historical.      Structural  and 

Physical  Peculiarities.     Commercial  Divisions.     Fungus  Disease 177 

a-  Cypress,  Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  distichum) 179 

REDWOOD  (Sequoia). 

Section  37.     Locality.    Peculiarities  of  Trees.    Structural  and  Physical  Quali- 
ties of  Wood.     Uses.     Mammoth  Trees 180 

a.  Redwood  (Sequoia  sempervirens) 182 

b.  Giant  Redwood  (Sequoia  washingtoniana) 182 


PART   III. 

ENDOGENOUS  SERIES. 

Section  38.     Definitions.     Cellular  Structure.     Structural  and  Physical  Pecu- 
liarities of  Endogenous  Wood.     Uses.     General  Information 183 

PALM  (PALMACE^E). 

Section  39.      Localities.       Structural    and   Physical   Peculiarities   of  Wood. 

Uses.     Botanical  Characteristics 185 

a.  Cabbage  Palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto) 186 

b.  Washington  Palm  (Washingtonia  filifera) 187 

YUCCA  (Yucca). 

Section  40.     Localities.     Structural    and   Physical    Peculiarities    of  Wood. 

Uses,  etc 188 

a.  Joshua  Tree,  Yucca  (Yucca  arborescens) 189 

BAMBOO  (Bambusse). 

Section  41.     Botanical  Characteristics.    Structural  and  Physical  Peculiarities 

of  Wood.     Growth.      Uses  in  the  Orient.    Possibilities  in  America,  etc.   190 
a.  Bamboo  (Bambusae  vulgaris) 192 


LIST   OF    PLATES. 


Frontispiece.     Live  Oak  (Quercus  virginiana). 

Plate  2.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD — Yearly  Rings  or  Layers, 

"  3.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD — Medullary  or  Pith  Ray. 

44  4.  EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD — Cross-sections  Enlarged. 

44  5.  Oak  (Quercus  alba). 

44  6.  Ash  (Fraxinus  americana). 

44  7.  Elm  (Ulmus  americana). 

44  8.   Maple  (Acer  saccharum). 

44  9.  Walnut  (Juglans;. 

44  10.   Hickory  (Hicoria  ovata). 

"  ii.  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata). 

"  12.  Beech  (Fagus). 

"  13.  Sycamore  (Platanus  occidentalis). 

"  14.  Birch  (Betula). 

"  15.  Ixx:ust  (Robinia,  Gleditsia). 

"  16.  Whitewood  (Liriodendron  tulipifera). 

"  17.  Black  Willow  (Salix  nigra). 

"  18.  Catalpa  (Catalpa). 

44  19.  Sassafras  (Sassafras  officinale). 

"  20.   Horse  Chestnut  (/Esculus  hippocastanum). 

44  21.  Sweet  Gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflua). 

44  22.   Holly,  Boxwood,  Lignumvitae  (Hex),  (Buxus,  Cornus),  (Guajacum). 

44  23.  Persimmon,  Osage  Orange,  Cherry  (Diospyros),  (Maclura),  (Prunus). 

44  24.  Teak,  Greenheart  (Tectona),  (Nectandra). 

44  25.  Mahogany  (Swietenia  mahagoni). 

44  26.  Eucalyptus  (Eucalyptus). 

"  27.  Pine  (Pinus). 

"  28.  Kauri  Pine  (Dammara  australis). 

"  29.  Black  Spruce  (Picea  nigra). 

44  30.  Douglas  Spruce  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia). 

44  31.   Hemlock  (Tsuga). 

44  32.  Larch,  Tamarack  (Larix). 

44  33.  Cedar  (Cedrus,  Thuya,  etc.). 

44  34.  Cypress  (Cupressus,  Taxodium). 

44  35.   Redwood  (Sequoia). 

44  36.  ENDOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 

"  37.   Palm  (Palmacese). 

14  38.  Yucca  (Yucca). 

44  39.   Bamboo  (Bambusse). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

NAMES     AND     LOCALITIES. 

"  Check  List  of  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States,  their  Names 
and  Ranges,"  Sudworth.  (U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  17.) 

FEATURES  OF  TREES,  BOTANIES. 

Prof.  Sargent's  "  Silva  of  North  America";  Michaux  and 
NuttalPs  "North  American  Silva";  Apgars  "Trees  of  Northern 
United  States";  Publications  U.  S.  Forestry  Division;  "  Our  Native 
Trees"  Keeler;  "Familiar  Trees,"  Mathews;  "Timber  Trees  and 
Forests  of  North  Carolina,"  Pinchot  &  Ashe  (N.  C.  Geological 
Survey  Bulletin  No.  6);  "Report  on  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massa- 
chusetts," Emerson;  "Manual  of  Botany,"  Gray;  "Plants," 
Coulter;  "  Illustrated  Flora  of  U.  S.,"  Britton  and  Brown;  etc.,  etc. 
Botanical  Gazette;  Guide  to  Trees  and  Shrubs  of  New  England  by 
their  Leaves,  Bradley  Whidder,  Boston. 

COLOR,     APPEARANCE    OR    GRAIN    OF    WOOD. 

fesup  Collection  at  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City; 
Hough's  American  Woods  (sections]. 

STRUCTURAL    QUALITIES    AND    USES    OF   WOODS. 

"  Timber,"  Roth  (Bulletin  No.  10,  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.};  Vol.  IX, 
Tenth  U.  S.  Census;  Prof.  Sargent's  "  Catalogue  Jesup  Collections"  ; 
Prof.J.  B.  Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction" ;  Prof.  Thurston's 
"  Materials  of  Engineering,"  Part  I;  Dr.  F.  E.  Kidder's  "  Inspection 
of  Materials  and  Workmanship. "  Allusions  in  numerous  publica- 
tions U.  S.  Forestry  Division. 

WEIGHTS    AND    MODULI. 

Circular  No.  15,  U.  S.  Forestry  Division;  Prof.  J.  B.  Johnson's 
"Materials  of  Construction";  Mr.  S.  P.  Sharpless'  Tables  for  the 
U.  S.  Census  (Vol.  IX,  Tenth  Census;  also  Executive  Document 
No.  5,  48th  Congress,  ist  Session,  and  also  Sargent's  "Catalogue 
Jesup  Collection"};  Prof.  Lanza's  "  Applied  Mechanics." 


xvi  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

AMERICAN    SPECIES. 

See  foot-notes  to  species  in  question. 

FOREIGN    SPECIES. 

Thos.  Lazlelfs  "Timber  and  Timber  Trees";  Report  on  Forests 
of  Western  Australia  by  J.  Ednie  Brown ;  Catalogue  Kew  Botanical 
Gardens,  London;  Works  Baron  Ferd.  von  Mueller;  "American 
Lumber  in  Foreign  Markets"  (Special  Consular  Reports,  Vol.  XI, 
U.  S.  State  Dept. );  Stevenson's  "  Trees  of  Commerce" ;  also  see 
foot-notes,  species  in  question. 

GENERAL. 

"Forestry  for  Farmers,"  Fernow,  and  other  U.  S.  Forestry 
Division  Publications,  Vol.  IX,  Tenth  U.  S.  Census;  Hough's 
American  Woods  (texf)\  The  Forester;  The  Northwestern  Lumber- 
man; The  (New  Orleans)  Lumber  Trade  Journal;  The  New  York 
Lumber  Trade  Journal;  The  Timber  Trades  Journal  (London); 
"Lumber  Trade  of  U.  S. "  (Bureau  Statistics  U.  S.  Treas.  Dept,); 
Trees  in  Winter,  Huntington. 

HISTORICAL. 

Brockhaus,  Konversations-Lexikon ;  Pliny,  etc. 

MEDICINAL    PROPERTIES. 

U.  S.  Dispensatory. 

Books  particularly  useful  to  beginners  are  in  italics.  Names  are 
repeated  when  books  could  not  be  particularly  classed  under  one 
heading.  Also  see  foot-notes  under  subiects  in  questions. 


THE   PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  \VOOD. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A  TREE  has  been  defined  as  a  woody  plant  that  produces 
naturally  and  in  its  native  place  one  principal  erect  stem  with 
a  definite  crown  of  foliage.  A  plant  thus  attaining  to  the 
dignity  of  a  tree  is  said  to  be  arborescent.* 

There  are  nearly  five  hundred  distinct  species  of  trees 
growing  in  the  United  States, t  as  well  as  many  others  peculiar 
to  other  countries,  yet  the  great  mass  of  wood  everywhere 
utilized  is  derived  from  comparatively  few  of  them.:}:  Many 
woods  will  be  more  generally  employed  as  their  valuable 
properties  become  more  familiar  or  as  the  supplies  of  wood 
now  utilized  continue  to  diminish. 

The  same  tree  is  often  called  by  different  common  names 
in  different  places.  Nearly  thirty  names  are  thus  applied  to 
the  longleaf  pine  (Pinus  palustris}.  Such  confusion  can  be 
avoided  only  by  regarding  the  recognized  botanical  nomencla- 
ture. 

The  botanical  name  of  a  plant  consists  of  two  principal 
terms  denoting  genus  and  species.  Quercus,  for  example,  is 

*  Fernow,  Introduction  to  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  17. 

f  Dr.  Fernow  credits  495  trees  to  United  States  (Introduction  to  U.  S.  Fores- 
try  Bui.  No.  17);  Prof.  Sargent,  counting  species  only  and  excluding  varieties, 
gives  422  (Silva  of  North  America). 

\  "The  principal  timbers  of  commerce  in  the  United  States  are  the  species 
known  popularly  as  pine,  fir,  oak,  hickory,  hemlock,  ash,  poplar,  maple,  cypress, 
spruce,  cedar,  and  walnut."  ("The  Lumber  Trade  of  the  United  States,"  Treas. 
Dept.,  Bureau  of  Statistics.) 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


the  generic  name  including  all  species  of  oak.  Alba,  rubra, 
and  others  are  specific  names  denoting  the  said  species. 
'•Quercus  alba  and  Quercus  rubra  are  completed  terms.  Genera 
are  not  fixed  but  differ  with  authorities,  so  that  the  abbreviated 
iicvn'e  of  the  botanist  responsible  for  the  classification  adopted 
is  often  added,  as  Quercus  alba  Linn,  and  Ulmus  fulva 
Michx. 

A  species  is  a  collection  of  individuals  that  might  well  have 
sprung  from  some  single  root.  A  genus  is  a  collection  of  re- 
lated species.  Genera  are  gathered  into  families.  Families 
and  genera  differ  with  authorities.  A  variety  includes  indi- 
viduals differing  slightly  from  accepted  species.  Its  name 
when  existing  is  part  of  the  specific  name.  "  Quercus  robur 
var.  pedunculata  "  specifies  a  variety  (pedunculata)  of  "  red  ' 
or  strong  (robur)  oak  (Quercus).  A  variety  of  one  botanist  is 
sometimes  a  distinct  species  of  another. 

The    size    and    character    of  the    trunk,    and    the    range, 
locality,  or  distribution  of  the  tree,  have  much  to  do  with  the 

utility  of  the  wood,  since  large 
or  perfect  timbers  cannot  be 
derived  from  species  charac- 
terized by  small  or  crooked 
"trees,  and  since  wood  is  always 
more  used  if  it  is  widely  dis- 
tributed so  as  to  be  easily 
available.* 

Wood  is  made  up  of  cell- 
structures;  as,  the  true  fibre, 
which  originates  from  several 
cells;  the  tracheid  (tra-ke-id), 
which  originates  from  one;  the 
vessel,  which  is  a  short,  wide 
tube  joined  vertically  end  to 

end 'with  others  of  its  kind;  the  pith-ray;  the  resin-duct,  and 
others, — all  of  which  are  often  popularly  referred  to  as  fibres. 


FIG.  i. — SOME  WOOD  ELEMENTS. 


*  Fossils  show  that  many  species  covered  wider  ranges  than  at  present. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

The  character  and  the  arrangement  of  cell-structures  differ 
with  species.  Wood  is  hard,  soft,  light,  heavy,  tough,  porous, 
elastic,  or  otherwise,  because  of  these  differences.  Appearance 
is  affected,  and  woods  may  be  distinguished  from  one  another, 
because  of  this  fact.* 

Most  wood  is  used  in  "construction,"  that  is,  in  mines, 
railways,  houses,  and  ships,  where  demand  is  for  size  or 
quantity,  and  where  finish  and  appearance  amount  to  but  little. 
Much  wood  is  used  in  decoration  and  furniture,  where  appear- 
ance, appropriateness,  and  finish  are  called  for;  but  these 
woods,  although  much  in  evidence,  are  infinitely  less  in  quantity 
than  those  employed  in  construction.  Some  wood  is  required 
for  implements,  turnery,  carvings,  and  small-piece  work, 
where  size  is  secondary  and  where  qualities  such  as  hardness, 
fine  grain,  and  uniformity,  controllable  in  small  pieces,  are 
primary.  Some  wood  is  used  indirectly,  as  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper-pulp,  gunpowder,  and  chemicals.  There  are  also 
by-products  of  trees,  such  as  tanbark,  turpentine,  resin,  nuts, 
and  sugar. 

The  weight,  strength,  and  other  measurable  properties  of 
xvood  are  variable.  Weight  varies  from  day  to  day  as  water 
is  absorbed  and  evaporated.  Strength  differs  with  grain,  age, 
moisture,  specific  gravity,  and  many  other  things.  Two 
pieces  from  different  portions  of  the  same  tree  differ  from  each 
other.  The  proportions  of  sap  and  heart  wood  are  seldom 
constant.  Results  from  small  specimens  may  differ  from  those 
obtained  from  larger  ones.t  The  botanical  accuracy  of  a 
specimen  is  not  always  certain,  therefore  figures  relating  to  the 
physical  properties  of  wood  should  be  employed  with  greater 
caution  than  those  relating  to  the  more  homogeneous  metals. 

Many  of  the  experiments  conducted  to  establish  statements 
regarding  the  physical  properties  of  wood  have  been  defective 

*  Roth,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  10,  pp.  64-71.  Also  von  Schrenk,  U.  S.  DepL 
Agriculture,  Bureau  Plant  Industry  Bui.  No.  14,  pp.  12-16. 

f  Only  because  imperfections  are  more  likely  in  larger  pieces.  Large  and 
small  pieces  of  equally  perfect  wood  are  equally  strong.  (See  Publications  U.  S. 
Forestry  Div.  and  J.  B.  Johnson's  "Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  462.) 


4  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

in  that  while  the  conclusions  were  correct  as  applied  to  the 
specimens  immediately  studied,  such  specimens  did  not  stand 
for  the  species  at  large.  The  recognition  of  difficulties,  the 
selection  of  specimens,  the  scientific  standardizing  of  methods 
so  that  results  could  be  generally  utilized,  as  distinct  from  the 
simple  manipulation  of  specimens  in  testing-machines,  have 
not  been  exhaustively  attempted  until  recently.* 

The  experiments  that  have  been  made  to  determine  the 
strength  of  woods  may  be  grouped  into  the  four  following 
divisions: 

(1)  Experiments  conducted  by  the  U.   S.    Division  of   Forestry 
(Dr.   B.    E.   Fernow,  Chief),  under  the  direction  of  Professor  J.  B. 
Johnson.      About  forty  thousand  tests  were  made,  distributed  over 
thirty-one  American  species,  the  results,   so  far  as  obtained,  being 
undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  in  existence.      The  detail  considered 
and  methods  evolved  have  in  a  way  reclassed  the  testing  of  woods 
and  must  influence  all  future  efforts,  but  results  are  disappointing  in 
that  they  have  been  obtained  for  so  few  species,  and  some  of  these 
of    commercially    secondary    importance.       These   experiments    are 
characterized  as  follows: 

Completeness  and  Reliability  of  Records. 

Large  and  Small  Test  Pieces. 

Moisture  Conditions  Standardized  at  \2%  Dry  Weight. 

Samples  from  Representative  Portions  of  Tree. 

Selection  of  Representative  Trees. 

Uniformity  of  Methods. 

Large  Number  of  Individual  and  Total  Tests. 

Small  Number  of  Species  Covered. 

Specific  Gravity  Determinations. 

Soil  and  Forest  Conditions  Indicated. 

Botanical  Accuracy  Assured. 

These  experiments  are  originally  described  in  Circular  No.  15 
and  other  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Forestry  Division,  also  in 
"  Materials  of  Construction,"  by  Professor  J.  B.  Johnson. 

(2)  Experiments    conducted    for   the    Tenth    U.    S.    Census   by 
Mr.  J.  P.  Sharpless  at  the  Watertown   (Mass.)  Arsenal  upon  speci- 
mens botanically  selected  by  Professor  Sargent.      These  experiments 
are  less  complete  in  detail,  and  averages  are  based  upon  infinitely 

*  It  should  be  noted  that  the  selection  and  preparation  of  specimens  require 
the  exercise  of  more  judgment  than  the  simple  testing  of  specimens,  if  the  con- 
clusions are  to  be  such  that  they  can  be  generalized  from. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

fewer  tests  for  each  species.  So  far  as  known  most  specimens  were 
from  butts.  Nothing  is  known  of  moisture  conditions  save  that 
specimens  were  "carefully  seasoned."  Tests  were  upon  about 
twelve  hundred  specimens  divided  over  four  hundred  and  twelve 
species,  allowing  but  a  small  number  for  each.  The  series  is  most 
valuable  in  that  the  species  attempted  were  so  numerous  as  to  present 
an  almost  complete  American  series;  in  that  the  botanical  identity 
of  the  specimens  was  beyond  question,  and  because  it  gives  a  general 
idea  of  relative  values.  The  results  are  frequently  quoted  and  appear 
on  the  accompanying  pages  in  spaces  immediately  following  those 
occupied  by,  or  set  apart  for,  ' '  Forestry  ' '  figures  or  their  alternates. 
The  tests  are  characterized  as  follows: 

Botanical  Accuracy  Assured. 

Specific  Gravity  Determinations. 

Uniformity  of  Methods. 

Limited  Number  of  Individuals  and  Total  Tests. 

Large  Number  of  Species  Covered. 

Small  Test  Pieces  Only. 

Selection  and  Moisture  Conditions  Indefinite. 

They  are  originally  described  in  Vol.  IX,  Tenth  U.  S.  Census; 
Executive  Document  No.  5,  Forty-eighth  Congress,  First  Session; 
in  Catalogue  of  the  "  Jesup  Collection,"  by  Professor  C.  S.  Sargent, 
and  elsewhere. 

(3)  Experiments  conducted  upon   full-sized  pieces.     The  most 
reliable  investigations  under  this  head   were    either  conducted   by 
Professor  Lanza,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,   or 
else  are  noted  by  him  in  his  work,  "  Applied  Mechanics  "  (ed.  1895, 
pp.  673-711).      They  are  valuable  in  that  specimens  were  selected 
on  a  commercial  rather  than  on  a  scientific  basis.      Professor  Lanza 
claims  that  such  actual  pieces  are  less  perfect  and  show  approxi- 
mately one  half  the  unit  strength  developed  by  the  more  carefully 
selected  smaller  specimens.     These  experiments  are  characterized  as 
follows: 

Life-sized  Specimens. 

Miscellaneous  Selections  as  if  for  Practical  Construction. 

Moisture  and  Other  Data  Indefinite. 

(4)  All  other  experiments.      Many  experiments  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time  which,  while  valuable,  are  not  distinguished  by 
any  particular  method  or  principle,  such  as  separate  the  investiga- 
tions  noted    in    the   preceding   articles.     Data   as  to   selection    of 
specimens,  moisture,  and  other  conditions  are  either  incomplete  or 
else  absolutely  lacking.     Such  tests  are  referred  to  as  are  noted  in 
works    of    Hatfield,    Trautwein,    Lazlett,    Rankine,    Thurston,    and 
others.     Some  of  these  series  are  exceedingly  valuable  comparatively. 
Professor  Rankine  and  Mr.  Lazlett  experimented  principally  upon 
foreign  woods. 


6  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

The  figures  established  by  the  United  States  Division  of 
Forestry  and  alluded  to  in  item  I,  page  4,  appear,  so  far  as 
they  exist,  upon  the  following  pages.  Where  they  do  not 
exist,  the  leading  spaces  set  apart  for  them  are  left  vacant  for 
other  insertions  as  preferred.  All  coefficients  are  in  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Fractions  of  pounds  in  weight  and  lower 
figures  in  coefficients  have  been  omitted  as  superfluous. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  the  species  of  living 
trees,  because  forms  in  the  forest  differ  from  those  in  the  open, 
because  bark  varies  with  age,  and  because  fruit  and  leaves  of 
many  trees  are  lacking  in  the  winter.  It  is  easier  to  tell 
genus  than  species — that  a  tree  is  an  oak,  than  whether  it  is  a 
red  or  a  pin  oak.  Experience  is  required  in  this  connection. 

Trees  are  divided  into  two  general  divisions  known  as 
Exogens  and  Endogens.* 

*  This  division  coincides  with  that  by  which  they  are  separated  into  Dicoty- 
ledons and  Monocotyledons. 


PLATE  2.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
YEARLY  RINGS  OR  LAYERS. 


A  section  of  a  Longleaf  Pine  Tree. 


' 


..«*•' 


A  section  of  Oak  showing  "  porous  "  structure  in  yearly  layers.     (Natural  size.) 


A  section  of  Hard  Pine  showing  "solid  "  structure  in  layers.     (Natural  size.) 


EXOGENOUS  TREES. 

(Dicotyledons . ) 

Exogenous  trees  are  those  .the  trunks  of  which  are  built 
up  by  rings  or  layers,  each  deposited  consecutively  upon  the 
outside  of  the  others.  A  section  exhibits  first  a  central  point 
or  canal  known  as  a  pith-cavity,  next  and  consecutively  the 
annual  layers,  and  finally  the  bark.  The 
woods  of  this  series  are  familiar  to  all.  The 
oaks,  pines,  and  practically  all  of  the  mer- 
chantable lumbers  are  among  them.  The 
forests  are  widely  distributed,  and  the  species 
are  so  numerous  as  to  present  an  almost 
infinite  range  of  possibilities. 

The  young  wood  of  exogenous  trees  is 
porous.  It  permits  the  passage  of  sap  and  CAVITY  AT  CENTRE. 
is  known  as  sapwood  (Alburnum).  As  a  layer  is  enclosed  by 
others  and  retreats  from  the  surface  of  the  tree,  it  becomes 
denser,  its  canals  are  filled  with  gums  or  tannin,  color  changes, 
and  the  result  is  heartwood  (Duramen).  This  change  goes 
forward  rapidly  in  some  trees,  such  as  locusts,  so  that  their 
sections  appear  to  be  almost  wholly  heartwood ;  other  species 
require  longer  time,  and  sapwood  then  predominates. 

Heartwood  gives  stability  to  the  tree,  but  is  not  needed  in 
its  physiological  processes.  It  is  tougher,  heavier,  stronger, 
and  more  valued  in  construction.  Sapwood  is  vitally  essen- 
tial to  the  life  of  the  tree,  but  is  lighter,  weaker,  less  durable, 
and  less  valued  in  construction.  Sapwood  is  pliable,  and  the 
sapwoods  of  several  trees  are  valued  for  this  reason. 

Wood-making  varies  as    it  takes  place  in  the  springtime 
and  in  the  summer.      Consequent  differences  in  the  densities 

7 


8  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

of  the  deposits  serve  to  mark  the  limits  of  the  yearly  rings. 
Some  species,  as  the  oaks  and  hickories,  show  pores  through- 
out their  spring  woods  which  thus  contrast  with  denser  summer 
growths.  Others,  as  Southern  pines,  change  sharply,  and 
their  spring  and  summer  growths  appear  as  solid  bands.  In 
even  climates,  where  seasons  are  not  pronounced,  growth  is 
more  regular  and  layers  correspondingly  less  definite.* 

The  cellular  structure  of  wood  is  principally  vertical,  a  fact 
that  explains  the  ease  with  which  wood  is  split  up  and  down. 
Beside  the  vertical,  there  are  horizontal  cells,  that  cross  the 
tree,  strengthen  and  bind  the  vertical  cells,  and  assist  in  the 
life-processes  of  the  tree.  These  horizontal-  cells  form  what 
are  known  as  medullary  or  pith-rays  and  appear  as  simple 
lines  or  glistening  plates  according  to  the  way  in  which  the 
wood  is  cut.  Woods  differ  in  the  size  and  number  of  these  rays, 
which  are  by  no  means  always  visible  to  the  eye  (see  plate  3). 

Woods  are  easy  or  difficult  to  work  in  proportion  as  their 
fibres  are  arranged  in  a  simple  or  a  complicated  manner.  This 
is  shown  in  the  figures  on  plate  4.  A  knife  pressed  upon 


FIG.  3. 

the  oak  must  crush  or  cut  into  the  fibres  themselves,  whereas 
with  the  pine  it  finds  some  natural  passage  between  the  cells. 
Wood  may  be  cut  so  as  to  develop  cross-sections  (C,  Fig.  3), 
radial  sections' (A'),  or  tangential  sections  (T).  The  respect- 

*  Circular  No.  16,  U.  S.  Forestry  Division. 


PLATE  3.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
MEDULLARY  OR  PITH  RAY. 


R 


T 


fettl, 

il  fill 

HlwiiJwBHHtiUk?!-"":^"-1' '' "" r  '4 JOMfiiS 

miWiiiiijiiiiwu^ 


p 


Actual  appearances  of  pith   ray,   PP. 
P 


Microscopic  enlargement  of  a  tangential  section  of  White  Oak 
showing  large  pith  ray,  pp. 


PLATE  4.     EXOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 
(CROSS-SECTIONS,  ENLARGED.) 


Two  yearly  layers  of  White  Oak.  The  larger  pores  were  formed  in  spring,  the 
smaller  ones  in  summer.  The  small  circles'are  ends  of  fibres.  A  knife  pressed 
upon  this  surface  would  crush  or  cut  into  the  cells.  The  mass  would  not  split  or 
separate  evenly. 


Two  yearly  layers  of  White  Pine.  The  space  in  the  outer  or  darker  one  is  a 
resin-duct;  the  circles  are  ends  of  fibres  (tracheids);  pith  rays  are  noticeable.  A 
kniffe  pressed  upon  this  surface  would  find  easy  passage.  The  mass  would  separate 
easily. 


EXOGENOUS   TREES.  9 

ive  markings  are  in  a  general  way  indicated  on  the  boards  in 
the  figure. 

Logs  are  sometimes  sawn  into  quarters  and  then  into  pieces 
crossing  and  exposing  the  yearly  rings.      (See  Fig. 
4.)      These    "quarter-sawn"    surfaces    are    struc-     x< 
turally  stronger  and  better,  but  are,  by  reason  of  ^ 
waste  or  small  pieces,  more  costly  than  others.    The    \ 
pith-rays  of  some  woods,   such   as  oaks,   are   very      FlG   4> 
prominent    when    split    as   they    are    in   "quarter- 
sawing,"  and  the  appearance  of  such  woods  is  consequently 
improved.* 

Exogenous  trees  are  divided  into  broad-leaved  trees  and 
needle-leaved  conifers.  The  broad,  flat  leaves  of  trees  such 
as  oaks  and  chestnuts  gave  rise  to  the  former  term,  while  the 
narrow  resinous  leaves  of  the  pine  and  hemlock  gave  rise  to 
the  latter.  The  woods  of  the  former  group  are  usually  referred 
to  as  hard  woods,  although  some  of  them  are  very  soft;  those 
of  the  latter  group  are  referred  to  as  soft  woods,  although  some 
of  them  are  very  hard.  Most,  but  not  all,  of  the  broadleaf 
trees  are  deciduous,  that  is,  they  change  their  foliage  every 
year;  and  most,  but  not  all,  of  the  needleleaf  trees  are  ever- 
green, that  is,  the  foliage  is  persistent.  Needleleaf  trees  are 
also  known  as  conifers,  that  is,  cone-bearers. 

It  is  usual  to  associate  the  terms  broadleaf,  deciduous,  and 
hard  wood ;  and  likewise  the  terms  needleleaf,  conifer,  ever- 
green, and  soft  wood.  While  generally  correct,  this  is,  as 
seen,  not  always  so.  A  better  division  is  into  broadleaf  trees 
or  woods,  and  needleleaf  conifers. 

*  Some  woods,  as  birdseye  maple,  are  well  developed  by  the  rotary  cut. 
A  revolving  log  is  advanced  against  a  tool  which  pares  a  broad  thin  ribbon  suit- 
able for  veneered  work. 


BROADLEAF   WOODS. 

The  trees  affording  these  woods  are  found  in  natural 
forests  and  under  cultivation  in  nearly  every  portion  of  the 
globe.  The  histories  of  some  of  them  extend  back  to  very 
remote  periods.  Their  woods  were  the  principal  ones  in  con- 
struction until  the  advent  of  American  soft  woods.  The  oaks, 
elms,  maples,  and  other  so-called  hard  woods  are  of  this 
group. 

Broadleaf  woods  are  characterized  by  complex  fibre  condi- 
tions, absence  of  resins,  and  greater  weights.*  They  are 
composed  of  several  kinds  of  cells  and  fibres,  arranged  without 
the  regularity  so  noticeable  in  the  conifers.  Cross-sections 
exhibit  numerous,  often  easily  visible  pores,  arranged  in  zones 
or  scattered  throughout  the  rings  (see  plate  2).  Pith-rays  are 
numerous  and  more  or  less  conspicuous,  save  in  softer  hard 
woods  such  as  poplar.  Woods  are  difficult  to  work  in  propor- 
tion as  they  are  complicated  in  structure.  The  numerous 
members  of  the  group  vary  from  one  another  and  present  an 
extensive  range  of  properties.  Trees  do  not  usually  afford 
large  pieces.  Woods  for  cabinet  work,  implements,  and  other 
fine  purposes  are  from  this  group.  The  total  requirement  is 
less  than  for  needleleaf  woods. 

The  leaves  of  broadleaf  trees  are  easily  distinguished  from 
the  resinous,  usually  evergreen  ones  of  the  conifers.  Most  of 
them  are  deciduous,  that  is,  shed  every  season,  although  some 
are  persistent,  that  is,  "evergreen."  "Broadleaf,"  "decidu- 
ous," and  "hardwood  "  trees  are  the  same. 

*  Neither  resin-ducts  nor  resin  exists  in  these  woods,  save  sometimes  in  buds 
and  leaves. 

10 


PLATE  5.      WHITE  OAK  (Quercits  a<ba). 


OAK. 

(Quercus.) 

The  oaks  are  found  on  all  of  the  continents  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  as  well  as  at  high  altitudes  just  south  of  the 
equator.  Their  woods  stand  pre-eminent  among  those  of  the 
broadleaf  series  and  have  been  highly  prized  from  early 
periods.  Formerly  relied  upon  for  all  purposes  of  house  and 
naval  architecture,  they  did  not  give  way  to  the  so-called 
"  soft  woods  "  for  houses,  and  to  iron  for  vessels,  until  com- 
paratively recent  periods.  They  were  supplanted  for  the 
former  purposes  upon  the  opening  of  the  soft-wood  forests  of 
North  America  and  of  the  Baltic,  and  for  vessels  subsequent 
to  the  conclusions  of  the  American  Civil  War. 

The  historical  importance  of  oak  is  founded  upon  the  repu- 
tation of  the  English  Oak  as  derived  from  two  trees,  Quercus 
robur  var.  pedunculata  and  Quercus  robur  var.  sessiliflora, 
usually  taken  as  sub-species  of  Quercus  robur.*  It  is  said  that 
these  trees  once  formed  large  forests  over  Northern  and 
Central  Europe.  Live-oak  has  always  been  highly  esteemed, 
but  is  now  very  scarce.  It  is  one  of  the  hardest,  heaviest, 
and  most  durable  of  constructive  woods  and  was  once  largely 
employed  in  ship-building.  The  wood  of  the  White  Oak 
(Quercus  alba]  is  at  present  preferred  for  most  purposes  foi 
which  oak  is  now  employed,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  the  American  hard  woods. 

Oak  is  tough,  durable,  easily  obtained,  liable  to  warp  and 
check  in  seasoning,  often  hard  to  nail  without  splitting,  sus- 
ceptible of  high  polish,  and  not  greatly  liable  to  attack  by 
insects.  It  contains  gallic  acid,  causing  peculiar  taste  and  odor 
and  attacking  iron,  the  solutions  staining  the  wood.  Experi- 
ments t  indicate  that  iron  fastenings  are  shortly  protected  by 
an  insoluble  scale  of  resulting  salt,  and  that  the  wood,  although 

*  Thought  by  some  botanists  to  be  distinct  species,  namely,  Quercus  pedun- 
culata and  Quercus  sessiliflora. 

f  Havemeyer  Chemical  Laboratory,  N.  Y.  University.  II 


THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


darkened,  remains  practically  uninjured.  The  later  oaken 
vessels  were  iron-fastened,*  and  cabinet-makers  now  employ 
that  metal  in  joining  oak.  The  barks  of  all  species  are  also 
so  charged  with  acid  as  to  be  used  in  the  tanning  of  leather. 
The  several  kinds  of  oak  are  commercially  divisible  into 
three  general  groups,  white  oak,  red  or  black  oak,  and  live 
oak.f  The  principal  species  affording  woods  under  each  head 
are  as  follows: 


White  Oak.  Red  or  Black  Oak. 

White  Oak  (Q.  alba).  Red  Oak  (Q.  rubra). 

Cow  Oak  (Q.  michauxii).  Pin  Oak  (Q.  palustris). 

Chestnut  Oak  (Q.  prinus).  Spanish  Oak  (Q.  digitata). 

Post  Oak  (Q.  minor).  Yellow     or     Black    Oak 
Bur  Oak  (Q.  macrocarpa).        (Q.  velutina). 
Pacific   Post  Oak  (Q.    gar- 
ryanna). 


Live  Oak. 

Live  Oak  (Q.  virginiana). 
California    Live   Oak    (Q. 

agrifolia). 
Live  Oak  (Q.  chrysolepis). 


Oak  trees  are  char- 
acterized by  oblong, 
thin-shelled  kernels, 
protruding  from  hard 
scaly  cups  and  called 
acorns.  The  foliage  is 


WHITE  OAK  RED  OAK 

(Quercus  alba).  (Qttercus  rubra.~) 

sometimes    deciduous    and    sometimes 
evergreen.      Most    oaks    require    many 
years   to  reach  maturity,  but  are  then 
long-lived.      Fifty  of  the  nearly  three 
hundred  known  species  of  oak  are  na- 
tives of  the  United  States  and  Canada  ; 
......  j      r  11     LiVE-OAK  (Qttercus  virginiana) 

all  but  four  become  trees  under  favorable 

conditions.     Quercus  is  from  two  Celtic  words,  quer,  signifying 
fine,  and  cuex,  a  tree. 

*  Communication.  Mr.  Chas.  H.  Cramp,  President  Cramp  Ship-building  Co., 
Philadelphia. 

f  This  division  is  also  a  botanical  one  based  not  only  on  differences  in  anatom- 
ical structure  of  the  wood  itself,  but  on  the  time  required  by  fruit  in  attaining 
maturity,  and  on  persistence  of  foliage  (evergreen  or  deciduous),  etc. 


EXOGENOUS    SERIES-BROADLEAF    WOODS.  13 

White  Oak.  Quercus  alba  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

White  Oak  (general).  Stave  Oak  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Widespread,  north-central  and  eastern  United  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter,  fine  shape  and  appearance.  Grayish-white  bark. 
Comparatively  sweet  ovoid  oblong  acorns  in  rough  shallow 
cups.  Rounded  lobes  or  projections  to  leaves. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown   with   sapwood   lighter.     Annual  layers  well 

marked. 
Medullary  rays  broad  and  prominent. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  strong,  heavy,  hard,  liable  to  check  unless  seasoned 
with  care.  Durable  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Receives  a 
high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  construction,  cooperage,  cabinet-making,  rail- 
way ties,  fuel,  etc.  Bark  is  rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Bounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
50  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
46. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,090,000  (average  of  218  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,380,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13, 100  (average  of  218  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

A  tree  of  the  first  economic  importance.  The  most  widely 
employed  of  all  American  oaks.  Name  refers  to  appearance 
of  bark.  The  supply  diminishing  because  of  value  of  timber, 
also  the  sweetness  of  nuts  cause  them  to  be  eaten  by  animals. 

*  See  page  6. 


14  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cow  Oak.  Quercus  michauxii  Null. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Cow  Oak  (local  and  common         Swamp  White  Oak  (Del., 

name).  Ala.). 

Basket  Oak  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,          Swamp  Chestnut  Oak  (Fla.). 
Tex.,  Ark.). 

Locality. 

Southeastern  United  States,  Delaware  and  Florida,  westward 
along  Gulf  to  Texas.  Also  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  to 
Gulf.  Best  on  rich  bottoms  in  Arkansas  and  Louisiana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy- five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter,  rough,  light-gray  bark  with  loose  scaly  ridges. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  light  buff  sapwood,,  conspicuous 
medullary  rays,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  very  strong,  tough,  durable,  easily  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Construction,  agricultural  implements,  wheel  stock. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
46  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

5°- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,610,000  (average  of  256  tests~by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,370,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,500  (average  of  256  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
1 5, 800. 

Remarks. 

The  principal  white  oak  of  Southern  States;  edible  acorns 
devoured  by  cattle,  whence  its  name. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  15 

Chestnut  Oak.  Quercus prinns  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Chestnut  Oak  (local  and  com-         Tanbark  Oak  (N.  C.). 

mon  name).  Swamp  Chestnut  Oak  (N  C  ) 

Rock  Oak  (N.  Y.,  Del.,  Pa.).         Mountain  Oak  (Ala.). 
Rock    Chestnut  Oak   (Mass., 
R.  L,  Pa.,  Del.,  Ala.). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Georgia,  westward  intermittently  to  Kentucky  and 
Alabama.  Best  development  in  southern  Alleghany  Mountain 
region. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  or  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  chestnut. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  medullary 
rays  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  tough,  hard,  strong,  and  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  railway  ties.     Bark  rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,780,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,600. 

Remarks. 

Prinus  is  a  Greek  name  applied  to  a  species  of  oak, 


1 6  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Oat  \  Quercus  minor  Sargent, 

\  Quercus  obtusiloba  Michx. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Post  Oak  (local  and  common  Overcup  Oak  (Fla.). 

name).  White  Oak  (Ky.,  Ind.). 

Iron  Oak  (Del.,  Miss.,  Neb.).  Box  Oak  (Md.). 

Box  White  Oak  (R.  I.).  Brash  Oak  (Md.). 
Chene  etoile  (Quebec). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains — Massachusetts  to  northern  Florida, 
westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and  Gulf  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Low  shrub  in  Florida.  Blunt  lobes  or  projections  to  leaves. 
Leaves  clustered  at  ends  of  branches.  Fine  tree  with  rounded 
top. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  or  dark  brown  with  lighter  sap  wood.  Close- 
grained,  annual  rings  well  marked.  Numerous  and  con- 
spicuous medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  drying.  Durable  in  con- 
tact with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used,  particularly  in  Southwest,  for  fencing,  railway  ties, 
and  fuel;  also  for  cooperage,  construction,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
50  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

52. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,030,000  (average  of  49  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
i,  180,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300  (average  of  49  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,900. 

Remarks. 

Most  common  and  widely  distributed  oak  in  Gulf  States  west  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  Obtusiloba,  the  Latin  for  blunt-lobed, 
refers  to  the  shapes  of  the  leaves.  Wood  seldom  commercially 
distinguished  from  white  oak. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  I? 

Bur  Oak.  Quercus  macrocarpa  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Bur  Oak  (local  and  common  Mossycup    Oak    (Mass.,    Pa., 

name).  Del.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark., 

Overcup  Oak  (R.  I.,  Del.,  Pa.,  III.,  Iowa,  Neb.,  Kan.). 

Miss.,  La.,  111.,  Minn.).  Scrub  Oak  (Neb.,  Minn.). 

Mossycup  White  Oak  (Minn.).  Overcup  White  Oak  (Vt.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick,  New  England,  westward  intermittently  to 
Montana  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  height,  five  to  seven 
feet  in  diameter.  Deep  opposite  depressions  to  leaves. 
Mossy,  fringed  border  at  top  of  acorn-cup.  Corky  wings  on 
young  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  broad 
conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  very  durable  in  contact  with 
ground. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Similar  to  those  of  Quercus  alba. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46.00. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,320,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,900. 

Remarks. 

Extends  farthest  west  and  northwest  of  any  other  Eastern  oak. 
Especially  recommended  for  prairie  planting. 


1 8  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Oak.  Quercus  garryana  Douglas. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Oak  (Cal.,  Oreg.).         Oregon  White  Oak  (Cal.). 
Pacific  Post  Oak  (Oreg.).          California  Post  Oak. 
Western  White  Oak  (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast,  British  Columbia  into  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  ninety  feet  high,  one  and  one  half  to  two  and  one  half 
feet  in  diameter.  A  small  shrub  at  high  elevations. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow.  Sapwood  lighter,  often 
nearly  white.  Compact  structure.  Distinctly  marked  annual 
rings.  Medullary  rays  often  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  strong,  hard,  tough. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  carriages,  furniture,  indoor  decoration,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,150,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

Locally  important.  The  best  substitute  for  Eastern  White  Oak 
produced  on  Pacific  coast. 


EXOGENOUS    SERIES— BROADLEAF    WOODS,  19 

Red  Oak.  Quercus  rubra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Oak  (local  and  common  name). 

Black  Oak  (Vt.,  Conn.,   N.  Y.,  Wis.,   la.,  Neb.,  So.   Dak., 

Ont.). 
Spanish  Oak  (Pa.,  N.  C.). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains,  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia,  westward 
intermittently  to  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  best  in  Massachusetts. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Three  to  six  feet  and 
over  in  diameter,  brownish-gray  bark  smooth  on  branches. 
Leaves  have  sharp-pointed  lobes,  very  large  acorns  in  flat 
shallow  cups.  A  fine  complete  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  sapwood  darker,  coarse-grained, 
well-marked  annual  rings,  medullary  rays  few  but  broad. 

Structural  Qualities  of  wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  inclined  to  check  in  drying,  acid,  inferior 
to  white  oak. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Works  of  secondary  importance,  clapboards,  cooperage,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
45  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,970,000  (average  of  57  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400  (average  of  57  tests  by  U.  S.   Forestry  Div.).* 

140,000. 

Remarks. 

Grows  more  rapidly  than  other  oaks.     Bark  used  in  tanning, 

*  See  page  6. 


20  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Pin  Oak.  Quercus  palustris  Muenchh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pin  Oak  (local  and  common  Water  Oak  (R.  I.,  111.). 

name).  Swamp     Oak    (Pa.,    Ohio, 

Swamp    Spanish   Oak    (Ark.,  Kans.). 

Kan.).  Water  Spanish  Oak  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota  to  Kansas,  eastward  intermittently  to  Massachusetts 
and  Virginia. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
Full-rounded  or  pyramidal  top,  smooth  thin  bark,  numerous 
small  pin-like  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  variegated  light  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white, 
coarse-grained,  medullary  rays  numerous  and  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shingles,  clapboards,  construction,  interior  finish,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,500,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,400. 

Remarks. 

Palustris,  the  Latin  for  swampy,  refers  to  favorite  location  of 
tree.  The  numerous  slender  secondary  branches  suggesting 
pins  cause  tree  to  be  easily  recognized,  particularly  in  winter. 


EXOGENOUS    SERIES—  BROADLEAF    WOODS.  21 


Spanish  Oak.        \  Qnuercus  djfafia 

(  Quercus  falcata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Spanish  Oak  (local  and  common  name). 

Red  Oak  (N.  C,  Va.,  Ga.,  Fla.,  Ala.,  Mis.,  La.,  Ind.). 

Spanish  Oak  (La.). 

Locality. 

New  Jersey  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Illinois  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  and  one  half  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.     Variable  foliage.      Globular  to  oblong  acorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  red,  sapwood   lighter,  coarse-grained,  annual 
layers  strongly  marked,  medullary  rays  few  but  conspicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  durable,  checks  badly  in  drying. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Somewhat  used    for   cooperage,   construction,   etc.     Bark  very 
rich  in  tannin. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  cf  Elasticity. 

1,900,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,900. 

Remarks. 

Dry  barren  soils.     Grows  rapidly. 


22  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Black  Oak,  Yellow  Oak.   \  Q"ercus  vfeluif{na  L«m'. 

\  Quercus  hnctona  Barh, 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Oak,  Yellow  Oak  (local  Tanbark  Oak  (111.), 

and  common  names).  Spotted  Oak  (Mo.). 

Yellow  Bark,  Yellow-bark  Oak  Quercitron  Oak  (Del.,  S.  C., 

(R.  I.,  Minn.).  La.,  Kans.,  Minn.). 

Dyer's  Oak  (Tex.). 

Locality. 

East  of  longitude  96  degrees,  Maine  and  Florida,  westward 
intermittently  to  Minnesota  and  Texas.  Best  in  North 
Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  height,  three  to  five 
feet  in  diameter.  Dark  gray  to  black  bark,  yellow  inner 
bark.  Acorns  have  bitter  yellow  kernels.  Foliage  turns  hand- 
somely in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse  grain, 
annual  layers  strongly  marked,  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  liable  to  check  in  drying,  not  tough. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cooperage,  construction,  furniture,  and  decoration. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
45  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
44- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,740,000  (average  of  40  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,470,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,800  (average  of  40  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
14,800. 

Remarks. 

Yellow  inner  bark  affords  yellow  dye. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  23 

T  .       n  .  (  Quercus  virginiana  Mill. 

.LlVc  (J3.K..  -\    ,-,  .  ... 

(  Quercus  virens  Ait. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Live  Oak  (Va.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,          Chene  Vert  (La.). 
Ga.,     Fla.,     Miss.,     Ala., 
Tex.,  La.,  Calif.). 

Locality. 

Southern  States — coast  from  Virginia  to  Florida,  westward  to 
Texas  and  Lower  California,  southern  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  Cuba.  Best  in  south  Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  sixty  feet  high,  diameter  three  to  six  feet.  General 
resemblance  to  apple-tree.  Evergreen  foliage. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow,  sapwood  nearly  white, 
close-grained,  compact  structure,  pronounced  medullary  ray, 
annual  layers  often  hardly  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  strong,  tough,  hard,  difficult  to  work,  splits  easily. 
Receives  high  polish,  very  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Ship-building. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

59- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,600,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Trunk  and  branches  furnish  small  straight  pieces,  but  principally 
knees,  crooked  or  compass  timbers.  Virens  refers  to  ever- 
green foliage.  Splits  so  easily  that  it  is  better  fastened  with 
bolts  or  trenails  than  spikes.  Now  scarce,  grows  rapidly. 


24  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

California  Live  Oak.         Quercus  agrifolia  Nee. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Coast  Live  Oak  (Cal.).  Encena  (Cal.). 

California  Live  Oak  (Cal.).  Evergreen  Oak  (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy-five  and  occasionally  more  feet  in  height, 
three  to  six  feet  in  diameter.  Evergreen  foliage,  leaves 
spiked  like  those  of  holly.  Shape  resembles  that  of  apple  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   creamy  white,  but  darkens  on  exposure.     Compact 
structure,  annual  layers  hardly  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  but  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fuel. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,200. 

Remarks. 

Agrifolia  is  from  the  Latin  acer,  sharp,  and/oMum,  leaf,  allud- 
ing  to    the    spinous   toothed    leaves. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  25 

Live  Oak.  Quercus  chrysolepis  Liebm. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Live  Oak  (Cal.,  Oreg.).  Canyon  Oak,  Iron  Oak,  Maul 

Canyon  Live  Oak,  Black  Live  Oak,  Valparaiso  Oak  (Cal..). 

Oak,       Golden-cup       Oak 

(Cal.). 

Locality. 

West  of  Rocky  Mountains,  canyons,  and  high  elevations. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,   three   to  six   feet   in  diameter. 
Often  low  shrub.     Impressive  appearance.    Evergreen  foliage. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  small  pores  in  wide 
bands  parallel  to  conspicuous  medullary  rays.     Close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  tough,  difficult  to  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Implements,  wagons,  tool-handles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

52. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,700,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1 8,  ooo. 

Remarks. 

Said  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  the  California  oaks.     Grows  at 
elevations  of  2000  to  5000  feet.     Highland  Oak  (Quercus  wis- 
.     lizeni)  is  an  evergreen  and  a  Pacific  Coast  variety. 


^  6  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

English  Oak.          Quercus  robur  var.  pedunculata. 

Nomenclature. 

English  Oak.  British  Oak.  Common  Oak. 

Locality. 

Widespread  throughout  northern  and  central  Europe. 

Peatures  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  eight  to  ten  feet  in 
diameter.  Crooked  branches,  stalkless  leaves,  long-stalked 
acorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  darker  spots  frequent,  sapwood 
lighter.  Compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  tough,  strong,  durable,  difficult  to  work,  liable  to  warp 
in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  beams,  cabinet-work,  formerly  carpentry. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
51  (Laslett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,170,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
10,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The  English,  Chestnut,  Durmast,  or  Red  Oak,  Q.  robur  var. 
sessiliflora,  distinguished  by  long  leaf  stalks  and  short  acorn 
stalks,  affords  practically  similar  but  lower-rated  wood.  The  two 
varieties  supply  the  British  Oak  of  commerce.  Dantzic,  Rigi, 
and  some  other  European  oaks  take  names  from  port  of  ship- 
ment. Rubrus  is  red,  but  robur  is  a  noun  meaning  strength; 
the  adjective  robustus  means  "  oaken  "  or  vigorous. 


PLATE  0.     WHITE  ASH  (firaxintis  ameruana) 


ASH. 

(Fraxinus.) 

Ash  is  widely  distributed  over  the  temperate  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  occurs  in  the  tropics,  on  the  island 
of  Cuba.  The  tree  has  occupied  a  position  second  only  to 
that  of  oak.  Our  Teutonic  forefathers  relied  upon  its  wood  for 
boats  and  weapons.  Their  ancient 
faith  connects  it  with  the  creation  of 
the  original  man.  It  is  often  asso- 
ciated with  oak  in  country  proverbs.* 
Europeans  regard  the  trees  for  or- 
namental purposes,  but  Americans 
value  them  for  wood. 

Ash  and  oak  woods  resemble  one 
another  in  that  there  are  bands  of 
open  pores  in  both  woods,  but  the 
pith-rays  of  the  ash  are  thinner  and 
scarcely  discernible .  Ash  is  coarser, 
less  attractive,  easier  to  work,  tough, 
elastic,  and  somewhat  lighter  than  oak.  It  seasons  well,  but 
does  not  last  when  exposed  to  the  weather.  Lumbermen  sep- 
arate the  woods  into  white  and  black  ash,  the  former  including 
the  lighter-colored  and  more  desirable  pieces.  This  commer- 
cial division  is  also  a  botanical  one  in  the  North,  where  the 
only  species  of  any  note  are  the  white  ash  and  black  ash 
(F.  americaua  and  F.  nigra).  The  Southern  green  ash  (F. 
lanceolatd]  is  usually  classed  as  white  ash.  The  trees  that  grow 
up  after  the  cutting  of  the  virgin  forest  afford  tougher,  more 
pliable,  but  not  necessarily  stronger  pieces,  known  as  ' '  second- 
growth  "  ash.  Although' not  relied  upon  for  out-of-door  con- 
struction, ash  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  cheaper 
cabinet  woods  and  is  used  in  stairs,  furniture,  and  similar  works. 


WHITE  ASH  {Fraxinus 
americaua). 


*  A  tradition,  old  in  Pliny's  time,  is  that  serpents  avoid  ash  trees;  another  is 
that  ash  is  particularly  liable  to  be  struck  by  lightning.     (Keeler.) 


28  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

One  half  of  the  thirty  known  species  of  the  genus  Fraxinus 
inhabit  North  America. 


The  name  ash  is  also  applied  to  several  species  of  the  genus  Pyrus  or  Sorbus, 
to  which  the  apple,  pear,  quince,  and  some  other  trees  belong.  "Mountain  Ash" 
is  either  Pyrus  americana  or  Pyrus  sambucifolia.  Both  species,  with  their  bright 
red  berries,  are  to  be  classed  as  shrubs  rather  than  trees;  their  light,  soft,  weak, 
close-grained  woods  having  no  economic  importance,  save  perhaps  for  fuel.  The 
series  is  partially  as  follows: 

Pyrus  mains  (Common  apple).  Pyrus  americana  (Mountain  ash). 

Pyrus  coronaria  (American  crab-apple).     Pyrus  sambucifolia  (Mountain  ash). 
Pyrus  communis  (Common  pear).  Pyrus  ancuparia  (Rowan  tree,  European 

Pyrus  vulgaris  (Common  quince).  Mountain  ash). 

The  Toothache  Trees,  Xanthoxylum  americana  and  Xanthoxylum  clava-herculis 
(Linn.),  are  known  as  ash  and  prickly  ash.  The  gopher  wood,  Cladrastis  tinctoria, 
is  yellow  ash.  These  woods  are  not  important. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  29 

White  Ash.  Fraxinus  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

White  Ash  (local  and  common         Cane  Ash  (Ala.,  Miss.,  La.). 

name).  American  Ash  (la.). 

Ash    (Ark.,    la.,    Wis.,    111., 

Mo.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 
and  Texas.  Greatest  development  in  the  Ohio  River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty-five  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.  Three 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Usually  smooth  leaves,  have  whitish 
under  surfaces.  Gray  furrowed  bark,  long-winged  seed. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  usually  mottled;  sapwood  much 
lighter  or  nearly  white.  Coarse-grained,  compact  structure. 
Layers  clearly  marked  by  large  open  ducts.  Medullary  rays 
obscure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  elastic,  becoming  brittle  with  age,  not 
durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Agricultural  implements,  carriages,  handles,  oars,  interior  and 
cheap  cabinet-work. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,640,000  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,440,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,800  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,200. 

Remarks. 

Economically  valuable.  Rapid  growers,  preferring  low,  rather 
moist  soil.  Not  apt  to  form  in  forests,  but  found  mingled 
with  other  varieties.  Large  trees  sometimes  have  large  heart- 
cracks. 

*  See  page  6. 


3°  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

•DO/I   Aoi,  (  Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marsh, 

IvCU.     ASH.  ^7-1  •  7  T 

(  rraxinus  pubescens  Lam, 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Ash  (local  and  common  Brown  Ash  (Mo.), 

name).  Black  Ash  (N.  J.). 

River  Ash  (R.  I.,  Ont.).  Ash  (Nebr.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida!  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Alabama.  Best  developed  in  North  Atlantic  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

A  small  tree,  rarely  over  forty-five  feet  high,  one  and  one-half 
feet  in  diameter.  Downy-covered  young  twigs  and  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  sapwood  light  brown  streaked  with 
yellow,  coarse-grained  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Agricultural  implements,  handles,  boats,  oars,  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,154,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Grows  on  borders  of  streams  and  swamps  in  low  ground.  Often 
confused  with  and  substituted  for  the  more  valuable  white  ash. 
Pubescens  is  in  allusion  to  the  downy  covering  of  the  new 
twigs  (those  of  white  ash  usually  smooth).  Pennsylvanica 
refers  to  locality  in  which  it  is  well  developed. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  31 

Blue  Ash.  Fraxinus  quadrangulata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Blue  Ash  (Mich.,  111.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ala.). 

Locality. 

Central  States,  Mississippi  Valley,  Michigan,  and  southward, 
cultivated  in  Pennsylvania.  Best  in  low  Wabash  Valley. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher,  one  to 
two  feet  in  diameter.  Slender.  Blue  properties  in  inner 
bark,  smooth  square  twigs. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  streaked  with  brown,  sapwood  lighter, 
close-grained,  compact  structure  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  brittle,  not  strong,  most  durable  of  ash  woods. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  in  floorings,  carriage-building,  pitchfork-  and 
other  tool-handles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

44- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

I,  100,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,500. 

Remarks. 

Has  no  superior  among  ash  woods.  Blue  Ash  pitchfork-handles 
are  very  fine.  Prefers  limestone  formations.  Inner  bark 
colors  water  blue,  whence  name. 


32  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Black  Ash.  -f  Fraxinus  niSra  Marsh. 

\  Fraxinus  sambucifolia  Lam. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Ash  (local  and  common  Swamp  Ash  (Vt. ,  R.  I. ,  N.  Y. ). 

name).  Brown  Ash  (N.  H.,  Tenn.). 

Water  Ash    (W.    Va.,  Tenn.,  Hoop  Ash  (Vt.,  N.  Y.,  Del., 

Ind.).  Ohio,  111.,  Ind.). 

Locality. 

Northern  and  Northeastern  States — Newfoundland  to  Virginia, 
westward  intermittently  to  Manitoba  and  Arkansas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  one  and  one-half  feet  in 
diameter.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  Elder.  A  thin  tree. 
Excrescences  or  knobs  frequent  on  trunk.  Dark,  almost 
black,  winter  buds. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown,  sapwood  light  brown,  often  nearly 
white,  coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  medullary  rays 
numerous  and  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Separates  easily  in  layers,  rather  soft  and  heavy,  tough,  elastic, 
not  strong  or  durable  when  exposed, 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  interior  finish,  fencing,  barrel -hoops,  cabinet- 
making,  splint  baskets,  chair-bottoms. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

39- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,230,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400. 

Remarks. 

Excrescences  known  as  burls;  their  distorted  grain  causes  them 
to  be  prized  for  veneers.  The  most  northerly  of  ash-trees; 
one  of  the  most  slender  of  trees. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  33 

Fraxinus  lanceolala  Borkh. 


Green  Ash.  -|  Fraxinus  viridis  Michx.  f. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Green  Ash  (local  and  common         Ash  (Ark.  Iowa). 

name).  Swamp  Ash  (Fla.,  Ala., Tex.). 

Blue  Ash  (Ark.,  Iowa).  Water  Ash  (Iowa). 

White  Ash  (Kans.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky    Mountains.     Vermont    and    northern    Florida-, 
intermittently  to  Utah  and  Arizona. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.    Bright 
green  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  smooth  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,   sapwood    lighter,   rather  coarse-grained,, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities. 

Hard,  heavy,  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses. 

Similar  to  those  of  White  Ash. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

44. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,050,000  (average  of  10  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,280,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1 1, 600  (average  of  10  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,700. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes  considered  a  variety  of  Red  Ash. 

*  See  page  6. 


34  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Oregon  Ash.  Fraxinus  Oregona  Nutt. 

Nomenclature. 

Oregon  Ash  (Calif.,  Wash.,  Oregon). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast,  Washington  to  California.  Best  developed  in 
bottom  lands,  southwestern  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  occasionally  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  one  to  one 
and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  Dark  grayish-brown,  bark 
exfoliates  in  thin  scales. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse-grained,  compact 
structure,  numerous  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Rather  light,  hard,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Manufacture  of  furniture,  carriage-frames,  cooperage,  and  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9400. 

Remaiks. 

One  of  the  valuable  deciduous  trees  of  the  Pacific  coast. 
Thrives  only  on  moist  soils  and  in  moist  climates. 


PLATE  7.     ELM  ( Ulmus  amencana). 


ELM. 


(Ulmus.) 

The  different  species  of  elm  are  distributed  over  the  cold 
and  temperate  portions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  save 
western  United  States  and  Canada.  A  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion is  attained  in  eastern  North  America,  where  trees  are 
greatly  prized  for  their  form  and  appearance. 

The  foliage  of  the  elm  is  concentrated  at  the  top,  and  the 
absence  of  lower  branches  causes  it  to  be  a  good  tree  to  plant 
near  houses  or  along  streets. 
Much  of  the  wood  is  tough,  fibrous, 
durable,  strong,  hard,  heavy,  and, 
because  it  is  so  often  cross- 
grained,  difficult  to  split  and  work. 
The  large  pores  of  the  spring 
wood  arranged  in  one  or  several 
rows  mark  the  annual  deposit, 
while  the  minute  pores  of  the 
summer  wood  arranged  in  con- 
centric wavy  lines  are  so  peculiar 
as  to  distinguish  this  wood  from 
all  others.  The  tall,  straight  trunks  afford  pieces  of  con- 
siderable size.  Elm  piles  sustain  constant  and  severe  shocks 
for  long  intervals.  The  grain  arrangement  of  elm  is  often 
very  beautiful,  so  that  it  is  increasingly  used  for  decoration. 
It  is  more  commonly  employed  in  the  construction  of  cars, 
wagons,  boats,  agricultural  implements,  machinery,  and  fur- 
niture. 

The  shape  of  the  trees  is  so  marked  as  to  cause  them  to  be 
easily  noted.  Fifteen  or  sixteen  species  have  been  recognized. 
Five  are  known  to  exist  in  the  eastern  American  forests,  and 
all  of  them  furnish  good  wood  of  commercial  importance. 
Ulmus  was  the  ancient  name  of  the  elm. 


ELM  ( Ulmus  americana). 


Geo.  B.  Emerson's  '-Trees  and  Shrubs  of  Massachusetts." 

35 


36  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

White  Elm.  Ulmus  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudvvorth.) 

White  Elm  (local  and  common  name). 

Water  Elm   (Miss.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Mo.,  111.,    la.,    Mich.,    Minn., 

Neb.). 

Elm  (Mass.,  R.  L,  Conn.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  la.,  Wis.). 
American  Elm  (Vt.,    Mass.,    R.   I.,    N.  Y.,    Del.,    Pa.,    N.  C., 

Miss.,  Tex.,  111.,  Ohio,  Kans.,  Neb.,  Mich.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

East  of  Rocky  Mountains,  Newfoundland  to  Florida,  westward 
intermittently  to  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  seven  feet  in 
diameter.  Characteristic  and  beautiful  form,  smooth  buds; 
leaves,  smaller  than  those  of  Slippery-elm,  are  rough  only  when 
rubbed  one  way. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  yellowish  white,  rather 
coarse-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  tough,  fibrous,  difficult  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Flooring,  wheel-stock,  cooperage,  ship-building,  flumes,  piles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
34  (U.  S.  Forestry  Division.)* 

40. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,540,000  (average  of  18  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,060,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,300  (average  of  18  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
1 2,  LOO. 

Remarks. 

The  concentration  of  foliage  at  top,  together  with  the  form  of 
the  tree,  renders  it,  valuable  in  landscape  work.  It  does  not 
cause  dense  shade.  Elm  and  silver-maple  trees  are  among 
the  first  to  show  life  in  spring.  Discarded, brownish  scales 
then  cover  ground  in  vicinity. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF   WOODS.  37 

Cork  Elm.  Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Cork  Elm  (local  and  common  Rock  Elm  (R.  L,  W.  Va.,Ky., 
name).  Mo.,  111.,  Wis.,  la.,  Mich., 

Hickory  Elm  (Mo.,  111.,  Ind.,  Nebr.). 

la.).  White  Elm  (Ont.). 

Cliff  Elm  (Wis.). 

Locality. 

Quebec  and  Vermont,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Tennessee.  Best  developed  in  southern  Ontario  and 
Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Thick,  corky,  irregular  projections  give  bark  a  shaggy  appear- 
ance and  mark  the  species. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  often  tinged  with  red;  sapwood 
yellowish  or  .greenish  white.  Compact  structure,  fibres  inter- 
laced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  tough,  difficult  to  split,  susceptible 
of  a  beautiful  polish,  elastic. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  agricultural  implements,  wheel-stocks,  railway  ties,  sills, 
bridge-timbers,  axe-helves,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,100. 

Remarks. 

Cork  Elm  is  the  best  of  the  elm  woods. 


38  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm.     \  ^us  pubescent  Wall. 
**    J  (  Ulmusfulva  Michx. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Slippery  Elm,  Red  Elm  (local         Redwooded  Elm  (Tenn.). 
and  common  name).  Moose  Elm  (occasional). 

Rock  Elm  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas.  Best  developed  in  Western  States. 

Features  of  Tree, 

Forty-five  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Characteristic  shape,  mucilaginous  inner  bark.  Buds  hairy. 
Leaves,  larger  than  American  Elm,  are  rough  when  rubbed 
either  way. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown  or  red,  sapwood  lighter,  compact 
structure,  annual  layers  marked  by  rows  of  large  open  ducts. 
Heartwood  greatly  preponderates. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  fence-posts,  rails,  railway  ties,  sills,  sleigh- 
runners,  and  wheel-stocks.  Mucilaginous  bark,  employed  in 
medicine. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,300. 

Remarks. 

Mucilaginous  inner  bark  renders  this  species  unmistakable, 
This  bark  is  used  in  medicine. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  39 

Wing  Elm,  Winged  Elm.      Ulmus  alata  Michx. 

Nomenclature. 

Wing  Elm,  Winged  Elm  (local  Mountain  Elm,  Red  Elm  (Fla., 

and  common  names).  Ark.). 

Wahoo,  Whahoo  (W.  Va.,  N.  Elm,  Witch  Elm  (W.  Va.). 

C.,  S.  C.,   La.,   Tex.,  Ky.,  Water  Elm  (Ala.). 

Mo.).  Small-leaved  Elm  (N.  C.). 

Cork  Elm,  Corky  Elm   (Fla.,  Wahoo  Elm  (Mo.). 

S.  C.,  Tex.). 

Locality. 

Southern  United  States,   Virginia  and  Florida  westward  inter- 
mittently to  southern  Illinois  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  feet  or  more  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.    Corky 
"  wings  "  on  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Color     brownish,     sapwood     lighter,     close-grained,     compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  tough. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

740,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 


MAPLE. 

(Acer.) 

The  maples  grow  on  all  of  the  continents  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  known  species  belong  in 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Orient.  The  principal  European 
species  (Acer  psetido- plat  anus)  is  the  European  scycamore.* 
The  hard  or  sugar  maple  (Acer  saccliaruni)  is  one  of  the 
principal  deciduous  trees  of  North  America. 

Maple  wood  t  is  characterized  by  its  appearance  and  by  its 
fine  compact  texture.  The  first  quality  is  so  marked  that 
selected  pieces  take  rank  among  the  most  beautiful  of  cabinet 
woods ;  the  last  is  so  pronounced  as  to  fit  it  for  carvings  and 
even  for  type.  "Birdseye,"  "blister,"  and  "curly" 
maples  are  not  from  different  species,  but  are  -the  results  of 
fibre  distortions,  possible  in  some  form  in  any  tree  of  any 
species,  but  peculiarly  liable  to  occur  in  the  maple ;  birdseye 
and  blister  effects  for  the  most  part  in  the  hard  maples,  curly 
effects  in  the  hard,  but  generally  in  the  softer,  species.  The 
distortions  do  not  occur  in  all  trees,  and  it  is  seldom  possible 
to  tell  whether  the  woods  are  thus  figured  until  after  the  trees 
have  been  cut.  Maple  wood  shrinks  moderately,  stands  well 
in  protected  places,  is  strong,  tough,  but  not  durable  when 
exposed.  Pores  are  not  arranged  in  circles,  but  are  scattered 
irregularly  throughout  the  layers.  Maple  is  used  for  ceiling, 
flooring,  panelling,  car  and  ship  construction,  shoe-lasts,  shoe- 
pegs,  furniture,  school  supplies,  implements,  and  machinery. 
Sugar  is  principally,  although  not  exclusively,  present  in  the 
sap  of  the  sugar  maple.  \  The  softer  species  are  sometimes 

*  See  Sycamore,  page  65. 

f  These  notes  apply  to  the  American  product. 

J  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Michigan  produce  the  larger  portion  of  the  about  fifty 
million  pounds  of  sugar  and  three  million  gallons  of  syrup  annually  manufactured 
in  the  United  States.  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Fisheries,  Game,  and  Forestry 
Commissioners,  New  York,  1897,  p.  308. 

40 


PLATE  8.     SUGAR  MAPLE  (Acer  saccharunf). 


"Curly  "  Maple  Wood  (dissection). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  41 

tapped,  and  sugar  is  also  present  in  the  sap  of  other  trees,  such 
as  the  butternut  and  birch.  A  sugar  maple  will,  on  an 
average,  produce  about  twenty-five  gallons  of  sap,  containing 
a  total  of  about  six  pounds  of  sugar,  in  a  season. 

The  Boxelder  (Acer  negundo]  is  a  true  maple,  remarkable 
in  that  it  is  widely  distributed  from  Canada  to  Mexico  and 
from    the    Atlantic    to    the    Rocky 
Mountains,    on    low    bottom    lands, 
and    at  elevations    of  five  thousand 
and  six  thousand  feet.*     The  trees 
are  beautiful  and,  like  other  maples 
are  valued  for  ornamental  purposes. 
The  soft,    light  wood  is  not  partic- 
ularly noted,  although  occasionally 
used  for  woodenware,  interior  finish, 
and    paper-pulp.      Small    quantities 
of  sugar  are  present  in  the   sap  of 
this  tree. 

The  maples  may  be  told  by  their 
leaves  of  characteristic  shape,  but 
chiefly  by  their  two-seeded  fruit  or 
"  keys,"  the  two  wings  of  which 
spread  differently  in  different  species. 
The  leaves  of  some  species  change 


Box  Elder,  b,  Hard  or  Sugar 
Maple,  c,  Soft  or  Red  Maple. 
of,  Soft  or  Silver  Maple. 


in  autumn  from  green  to  red  and  other  brilliant  colors.  Those 
of  other  species  change  to  yellow  without  trace  of  red.  Sixty 
to  seventy  species  have  been  distinguished,  nine  of  which  occur 
in  North  America. 


*  Sargent. 


4  2  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple.       \  Afcr  sacch«rum  * 

(  Acer  saccnannum   Wang. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Sugar  Maple,  Hard  Maple  (local  Rock  Maple  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  H., 

and  common  names).  Conn.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y., 

Black  Maple  (Fla.  ,  Ky.,  N.  C.).  Tenn.,     111.,     Mich.,     la., 

Sugar  Tree  (frequent).  Kans.,  Wis.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Best  development  Maine  to  Minnesota;  range  extends  southward 
to  Florida  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  and  more  in  height,  one  and  one- 
half  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  fruit  or  "maple-key" 
with  wings  less  than  right  angles  ripen  in  early  autumn  ;  one 
seed-cavity  is  usually  empty.  Foliage  turns  to  brilliant  reds 
and  other  colors  later.  Large  impressive  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained,  compact 
structure,  occasional  "curly,"  "blister,"  or  "  birdseye  " 
effects. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  susceptible  of  good  polish,  wears 
evenly,  not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  shoe-lasts,  piano-actions,  wooden  type  for  showbills, 
pegs,  interior  finish,  flooring,  ship-keels,  vehicles,  fuel, 
veneers,  rails,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,070,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Birdseye,  blister,  and  to  a  less  extent  curly  and  landscape 
effects  pronounced  in  this  species.  Saccharum  refers  to  sugar 
manufactured  from  the  sap.  Hard  maple  is  because  of  hard- 
ness of  wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  43 

Acer  saccharinum  Linn. 


Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple.  ,  ^, 

(  Acer  dasycarpum  Lhr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Silver  Maple,  Soft  Maple  (local  White  Maple  (Me. ,  Vt. ,  R.  I. , 

and  common  names).  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  W.  Va., 

Swamp  Maple  (W.  Va.,  Md.).  N.    C.,    S.   C.,    Ga.,    Fla., 

Water  Maple  (Pa.,  W.  Va.).  Ala.,  Miss.,  La.,  Ky.,  Mo., 

River  Maple    (Me.,    N.    H.,  111.,    Ind.,    Kans.,    Nebr., 

R.  I.,  W.  Va.,  Minn.).  Minn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Indian  Territory.  Best  devel  ^pment  in  lower  Ohio 
River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.  Three  to 
five  feet  in  diameter.  Fine  shape,  sometimes  suggests  elm. 
Fruit  or  "maple-key"  with  long,  stiff,  more  than  right- 
angled  wings  ripens  in  early  summer.  Leaves  whitish 
beneath,  turn  showing  yellow,  but  little  or  no  red,  in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  ivory-white,  fine  grain, 
compact  structure.  Fibres  sometimes  twisted,  waved,  or 
curly. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  brittle,  easily  worked,  moderately  strong;  receives  high 
polish.  Not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  turned  work,  interior  decoration,  flooring,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,570,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,400. 

Remarks. 

Waved,  spiral,  or  curly  figure  pronounced  in  this  species,  very 
real  resemblance  to  lights  and  shadows  on  planed  surfaces. 
Small  quantities  of  sugar  present  in  sap,  occasionally  utilized. 


44  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Red  Maple,  Swamp  Maple.     Acer  rubrum  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Red    Maple,    Swamp    Maple  Water  Maple  (Miss.,  La.,  Tex., 

(local  and  common  names).          Ky. ,  Mo. ). 

Soft  Maple  (Vt.,  Mass.,  N.  Y.,  White  Maple  (Me.,  N.  H.). 

Va.,    Miss.,    Mo.,    Kans.,  Red  Flower  (N.  Y.). 

Neb.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota 
and  Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  and  more  in  height,  two  and  one-half  to 
four  feet  in  diameter.  Red  twigs  and  flowers  in  early  spring. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  lighter,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure.  Red  blossoms,  twigs,  and  stems. 
Leaves  turn  scarlet  in  autumn. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Easily  worked,  heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  elastic,  qualities 
between  those  of  silver  and  sugar  maple. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  in  cabinet-making,  turnery,  woodenware,  gun- 
stocks,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,340,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Occasionally  shows  "curly"  figure.  Trees  are  occasionally 
tapped  and  small  quantities  of  sugar  are  obtained  from  the 
sap. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  45 

Oregon  Maple.  Acer  macrophyllum  Pursh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Oregon  Maple  (Oreg.,  Wash.).  Broad-leaved  Maple  (Central 

White  Maple  (Oreg.,  Wash.).  Calif.,    Willamette   Valley, 

Maple  (Calif.).  Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Alaska  to  California.     Best  in  rich  bottom  lands  of  southern 
Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,   three   to  five  feet  in 
diameter.     Beautiful  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish     brown,    sapwood    whitish,     close-grained,     compact 
structure,  occasionally  figured. 

Structural  Qualities. 

Light,  hard,  strong;  receives  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Locally  used  for  tool-handles,  turned  work,  and  furniture. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

30. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,100,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9720. 

Remarks. 

Ornamental  tree  has  been  introduced  into  Europe.     Said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  valuable  Pacific  coast  broadleaf  woods. 


46  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

\  Acer  negundo  Linn 

\  Negundo  aceroides  Moench. 


Boxelder,  Ash-leaved  Maple.       J  Acer  neZundo  Linn' 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Boxelder,    Ash-leaved    Maple  Stinking  Ash  (S.  C.). 

(local  and  common  name).  Negundo  Maple  (111.). 

Red  River  Maple,  Water  Ash  Three-leaved  Maple  (Fla.). 

(Dak.).  Black  Ash  (Tenn.). 

Cut-leaved  Maple  (Colo.).  Sugar  Ash  (Fla.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  Ocean  westward  intermittently  to  Rocky  Mountains, 
Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  three  feet 
in  diameter.  Wings  to  keys  are  straight  or  incurved.  Leave 
sparingly  and  coarsely  toothed,  show  yellow  but  little  or  no 
red  in  autumn. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood,  cream-white;  sapwood  similar;  close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  not  strong,  soft. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  cooperage,  etc.,  paper-pulp  (largely),  occasionally 
interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

82,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7500. 

Remarks. 

A  rapid  grower.  Withstands  severe  climatic  changes.  A  good 
tree  to  plant  in  naturally  treeless  sections.  Sugar  is  sometimes 
obtained  from  the  sap  of  this  species.  The  "  Boxelder"  is 
a  true  maple. 


Black  Walnut  Tree  (jfuglans  nigra). 
Black,  White,  and  English  Walnuts. 


Black  Walnut  Trunk  (JugZans  nigra) 
Black  Walnut  Wood  (Juglans  nigra}. 


WALNUT. 

(Juglans.) 

The  English  or  Royal  Walnut  (Juglans  regia),  a  native  of 
Persia,  was  the  only  available  species  of  this  genus  until  the 
introduction  of  the  nearly  similar  Black  Walnut  of  North 
America.*  As  oak  gave  way  first  to  soft  woods  for  construc- 
tion, so  it  gave  way  first  to  walnut  for  cabinet  purposes.  The 
wood  soon  became  very  fashionable,  and  exorbitant  prices 
were  paid  for  it.  Walnut  was  extremely  popular  in  the  United 
States  until  about  1880,  when  oak  began  to  resume  its  place  as 
the  popular  cabinet  wood.  The  nuts  of  the  English  or  Persian 
walnut  are  better  than  those  of  the  American  species,  but  the 
wood  of  the  latter  is  superior. 

The  use  of  walnut  wood  for  gun-stocks  began  in  Europe, 
the  demands  early  becoming  so  great  that,  until  the  general 
peace  following  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  the  greater  part  of  the 
French  product  was  diverted  for  that  purpose,  while  prices  rose 
in  England  so  that  six  hundred  pounds  sterling  is  reported  to 
have  been  paid  for  a  single  tree.  In  spite  of  the  innumerable 
woods  that  have  since  been  introduced,  this  one  is  yet  regarded 
as  best  for  gun-stocks. t  Walnut  is  a  firm,  hard,  chocolate- 
colored  wood,  with  pores  not  arranged  in  rings  but  scattered 
somewhat  irregularly.  The  sombre,  although  rich,  color  has 
been  objected  to  for  some  positions.  Large  excrescences  or 
"  burrs  "  are  common  on  foreign  trees,  particularly  those  near 
the  Black  Sea  and  in  Italy.  The  grain  in  such  growths  is 
beautifully  irregular,  and  the  wood,  known  as  "  burl,"  is  prized 
for  veneers.  Trees  are  very  scarce,  and  walnut  is  now  seldom 
seen  save  in  cabinet  work  or  gun-stocks.  The  related  White 
Walnut  or  Butternut  {Juglans  cinered]  affords  a  less-prized  and 


*  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

{•France  used  twelve  thousand  trees  in  1806.     (Stevenson's   "Trees  of  Com- 
merce," p.  77.) 

47 


48  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

lighter-tinted  wood.  The  nuts  of  the  walnuts  are  a  source  of 
profit. 

Black  walnut  trees  seldom  form  forests  by  themselves,  but 
occur  generally  in  mixed  growth.  They  grow  quickly,  but  the 
heartwood  for  which  the  tree  is  valued  begins  to  form  only 
when  the  tree  is  at  a  considerable  age,  so  that  a  number  of 
years  must  elapse  before  a  tree  can  produce  wood  of  the 
desired  quality.  Trees  one  hundred  years  old  furnish  the  best 
quality  of  wood. 

Walnut  trees  may  be  known  by  their  nuts,  the  husks  or 
pods  of  which  adhere  unbroken,  instead  of  loosening,  com- 
pletely divide  into  four  sections,  as  with  the  hickories. 
Juglans  is  from  Jovis,  signifying  Jove's,  and  glans,  signifying 
acorn.  This  nut,  not  the  fruit  of  the  oak,  was  the  acorn  of 
the  ancients.* 

*  The  ancients  considered  the  shade  of  the  walnut  as  harmful  to  all  life.     It  is 
certain  some  vegetation  is  affected,  probably  by  properties  in  fallen  leaves. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  49 

Black  Walnut.  Juglans  nigra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Walnut  (local  and  common  name). 

Walnut  (N.  Y.,  Del.,  W.  Va.,  Fla.,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  la.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  and  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  three  to 
eight  feet  in  diameter.  A  tall  handsome  tree  with  rough 
brownish,  almost  black,  bark.  Large,  rough-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark,  rich,  chocolate-brown.  Thin  sapwood  much 
lighter,  rather  coarse-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  easily  worked,  durable,  susceptible  to  high 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  gun-stocks,  also  formerly  furniture  and  decora- 
tion. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,100. 

Remarks. 


The  English,  Royal,  or  Persian  Walnut  (Juglans  regia)  affords 
nearly  similar  wood.  Widely  distributed  over  Europe.  Italian  trees 
furnish  best,  French  next,  and  English  least  desirable,  paler  and 
coarser  wood.  Occasional  trees  in  Eastern  United  States,  as  New 
York;  very  plentiful  in  California. 


50  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Butternut,  White  Walnut.    Juglans  cinerea  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Butternut,      White      Walnut         Walnut  (Minn.), 
(local  and  common  names).          White  Mahogany. 
Oil  Nut  (Me.,  N.  H.,  S.  C.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia,  westward  to  Dakota  and  Arkansas. 
Best  in  Ohio  River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Medium  size,  sometimes  seventy-five  feet  or  over  in  height,  two 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Branches  widespread;  large-sized 
oblong  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  gray -brown,  darkening  with  exposure;  sap- 
wood  nearly  white,  coarse-grained  compact  structure,  attrac- 
tive. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  easily  worked.  Susceptible  of  high 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Interior  finish,  cabinet-work.      Inner  bark  furnishes  yellow  dye. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,150,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

The  sap  contains  sugar  and  is  occasionally  mixed  with  maple- 
sap  in  the  manufacturing  of  ' '  maple  ' '  sugar. 


PLATE  10.     HICKORY  (Ilicoria  ovata). 


HICKORY. 

(Hicoria  or  Carya. ) 

The  Hickories  occur  only  in  the  eastern  part  of  North 
America.  They  produce  woods  in  which  the  qualities  of 
toughness,  elasticity,  and  resilience  are  unusually  pronounced, 
and  since  these  qualities  are  greatest  in  the  sapwood, 
hickories  are  peculiar  in  that  the  sapwood  is  more  valuable 
than  the  heart.  Second-growth  wood  is  much  prized,  since, 
being  younger,  it  contains  more  of  the  pliable  sapwood.* 

Hickory  is  not  durable  when  exposed  and  is  more  or  less 
subject  to  attack  by  boring-insects.  It  is  used  for  implements, 
machinery,  carriages,  and  the  like;  hickory  axe-helves  have 
no  superiors.  The  nuts  of  the  shagbark  or  white  hickory  are 
a  source  of  considerable  profit.  The  pecan  (Hicoria  pecan) 
affords  wood  so  inferior  as  to  be  little  used  in  construction, 
although  it  makes  an  excellent  fuel.  Pecans  are  planted  in 
many  of  the  Southern  States  because  of  the  nuts,  for  which  a 
considerable  demand  exists. 

The  Hickories  are  known  by  their  nuts,  the  husks  or  pods 
of  which  loosen  completely  from  the  nut  in  four  pieces,  instead 
of  adhering  unbroken  as  in  the  case  of  the  walnuts.  The  nine 
species  are  American  trees,  eight  of  them  being  natives  of  the 
United  States.  Carya  was  the  Greek  name  of  the  common 
walnut.  Hickory  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Indian 
powcohicora,  a  liquor  once  obtained  from  the  nuts  of  the 
hickory. 

*  See  Second-growth  Ash. 

51 


52  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Hicoria 

Carya  alba  Nutt. 


rvL.     t     t    TT-  t  01.  111.     i    TT-  i  (  Hicoria  ovata  Mill. 

Shagbark  Hickory,  Shellbark  Hickory.      •< 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Shellbark  or  Shellbark  Hickory  Hickory  (Vt.,  Ohio). 

(local  and  common  name).  Upland  Hickory  (111.). 

Scalybark    Hickory    (W.  Va.,  White  Hickory  (la.,  Ark.). 

S.  C.,  Ala.).  Walnut  (Vt.,  N.  Y.). 

Shellbark  (R.  I.,    N.  Y.,    Pa.,  Sweet  Walnut  (Vt.). 

N.  C.).  Shagbark  Walnut  (Vt.). 
Shagbark  (R.  I.,  Ohio). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota  and 
Texas.  Wide  range,  best  in  Ohio  valley. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher;  two 
and  one-half  to  three  feet  in  diameter.  Shaggy  bark,  thin- 
shelled  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  ivory-  or  cream-colored. 
Close-grained,  compact  structure.  Annual  rings  clearly 
marked.  Medullary  rays  numerous  but  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  exceptionally  tough  and  flexible, 
not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  used  for  agricultural  implements,  wheels,  and  runners, 
axe-handles,  baskets,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
51  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

52. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,390,000  (average  of  137  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,900,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000  (average  of  137  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

The  nuts  form  an  important  article  of  commerce.  "  Shagbark  " 
refers  to  the  shaggy  appearance  of  the  bark. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-BROADLEAF  WOODS.  53 

.   /TT.  .  (  Hi  cori  a  glabra  Mill. 

Pignut  (Hickory).        Cara        ^  ^ 


Carya 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pignut    (local    and    common  Bitternut  (Ark.,  111.,  la.,  Wis.  ). 

name).  White  Hickory  (N.  H.,  la.). 

Black    Hickory    (Miss.,    La.,  Broom  Hickory  (Mo.). 

Ark.,  Mo.,  Ind.,  la.).  Hardshell  (W.  Va.). 

Brown  Hickory  (Del.,  Miss.,  Red  Hickory  (Del.). 

Tex.,  Tenn.,  Minn.).  Switchbud  Hickory  (Ala.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  southern 
Nebraska  and  eastern  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher; 
Two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Rather  smooth  bark.  Large 
thick  -shelled  nuts,  kernels  often  astringent  or  bitter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  and  dark  brown,  thick  sapwood,  lighter, 
nearly  white.  Close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  flexible,  tough,  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  shagbark  hickory. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
56  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.  ).* 

5i- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,730,000  (average  of  30  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,460,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

18,700  (average  of  30  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

14,800. 

Remarks. 

Nuts  are  devoured  by  pigs,  whence  the  name  porcina. 

*  See  page  6. 


54  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

™°™  alba  Linn 


Mocker  Nut  (Hickory),  f^  .. 

v  I  ^arya  tomentosa  Nuit. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Mocker  Nut,  Whiteheart  Hick-  Hickory  (Ala.,   Tex.,  Pa.,  S. 

ory     (local    and     common  C.  ,  Neb.). 

names).  Big-bud,  Red  Hickory  (Fla.  ). 

Bullnut  (N.  Y.,  Fla.,   Miss.,  Common  Hickory  (N.  C.). 

Tex.,     Mo.,     Ohio.,     111.,  White  Hickory  (Pa.,  S.  C.). 

Minn.).  Hickory  Nut  (Ky.,  W.  Va.). 

Black  Hickory  (Tex.,  Miss.,  Hog  Nut  (Del.). 

La.,  Mo.).  Hard  bark  Hickory  (111.). 

Locality. 

Ontario  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Missouri  and 
Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  and  one-half  to 
three  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  A  tall  slender  tree  with 
rough,  but  not  shaggy,  bark.  Thick  shell,  edible  nut. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  dark  brown,  thick  sapwood  nearly  white, 
close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy,  hard,  tough,  strong,  and  flexible. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  shellbark  hickory. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  -per  Cubic  Foot. 

53  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

5i- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,320,000  (average  of  75  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,630,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,200  (average  of  75  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

The  most  generally  distributed  species  of  the  genus  in  the  South. 
Mocker  nut  ormokernut  is  said  (Britton)  to  be  from  a  Dutch 
word  meaning  hammer,  or  else  (Keeler)  from  disappointing 
quality  of  nuts. 

*  See  page  6. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS  55 


-n  /TT-  i         \      ( Hicona  pecan  Marsh. 

Pecan.  (Hickory),   \  r>          ,-    f      •*-,., 

J  '      (  Carya  olivceformis  A  uti. 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Pecan  (local  and  common  name). 
Pecan  Nut,  Pecan-tree,  Pecanier  (La.). 

Locality. 

Valley  of  Mississippi,  southward  to  Louisiana,  Texas,  and 
Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  sometimes  higher.  Two 
and  one-half  to  five  feet  in  diameter.  A.  tall  tree,  smooth- 
shelled  oblong  edible  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  lighter 
brown.  Close-grained  and  compact,  medullary  rays  numerous 
but  thin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Heavy,  hard,  not  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fuel,  seldom  used  in  construction. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
49  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
44- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,530,000  (average  of  37  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

940,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,300  (average  of  37  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

8,  200. 

Remarks. 

Grows  on  borders  of  streams  in  low  rich  soil.  Largest  and 
most  important  tree  of  western  Texas.  The  sweet  edible  nuts 
form  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

*  See  page  6. 


CHESTNUT,  CHINQUAPIN. 

(Castanea.) 

The  chestnut  is  found  in  the  temperature  regions  of  central 
and  southern  Europe,  northern  Africa,  China,  Japan,  and 
eastern  North  America.  The  wood  is  valued  in  construction, 
and  the  much-prized  nuts  are  regarded  as  a  food  rather  than  a 
confection.  European  chestnut  wood  was  once  high  in  favor, 
although  examination  of  structures  in  which  it  was  supposed 
to  have  been  used  indicates  that  in  some  instances  oak  had 
been  mistaken  for  it  and  had  been  employed  in  its  place. 

The  North  American  chestnut  affords  a  weak,  brittle,  but 
easily  worked  and  very  durable  wood,  such  as  is  admirably 
adapted  for  beams,  ties,  and  sills,  where  lightness  and 
durability  rather  than  much  transverse  strength  are  required. 
Trees  in  Europe  have  attained  to  great  size  and  age.  Micheaux 
mentions  one  thirty  feet  in  circumference  six  feet  from  the 
ground  and  said  to  have  been  standing  for  a  thousand  years. 
The  famous  Mt.  Etna  chestnut  *  is  reported  to  have  measured 
two  hundred  and  four  feet  in  circumference.  Large  trunks  are 
apt  to  be  hollow,  affording  brittle,  useless  wood.  The 
botanical  relation  between  the  American  and  European  chest- 
nuts is  not  distinct.  Some  consider  the  former  a  distinct 
species,  others  a  variety  only.  The  name  "Chinquapin" 
applies  to  two  distinct  botanical  species,  one,  the  Castanea 
pumila,  closely  related  to  the  common  chestnut;  the  other, 
Castanopsis  chrysophylla,  belonging  to  the  same  family 
(Cupuliferae),  but  to  quite  another  genus.  Both  afford  woods 
resembling,  but  heavier  than,  chestnut. 

The   chestnut   may  be  known   by  its   large   prickly  burr, 

*  "Castagno  di  cento  cavalli,"  so  called  from  having  sheltered  IOO  mounted 
cavaliers,  measured  by  Brydon  in  1770.  It  had  the  appearance  of  five  distinct 
trees,  but  was  probably  one  trunk.  (G.  B.  Emerson,  "Trees  and  Shrubs  of 
Massachusetts,"  Vol.  I,  page  192.) 

56 


PLATE  11.     CHESTNUT  (Castanea  dent  at  a). 


(Courtesy  N.  C.  Geological  Survey.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  57 

containing  from  one  to  three  thin-shelled,  triangular,  wedge- 
shaped  nuts.  Both  chinquapins  have  prickly  burrs  containing 
one,  or  sometimes  two,  sweet  edible  nuts.  Three  of  the  four 
known  species  of  the  genus  Castanea  grow  in  North  America, 
one  the  common  chestnut  (Castanea  vulgaris)  ;  another  the 
Chinquapin  (Castanea  pumila) ;  the  third  a  plant  never  attaining 
to  the  size  of  a  tree.  The  Chinquapin  (Castanopsis  clirysa- 
pJiylla)  is  the  only  North  American  representative  of  a  genus 
including  twenty-five  species.  Keeler  says  that  Castanea  is 
from  a  town  of  that  name  in  Thessaly,  or  from  another  town 
of  that  name  in  Pontus. 


58  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

(  Castanea  dentala  (Marsh}  Borkh. 
Chestnut.  •<  Castanea  vesca  var.  americana  Michx. 

(  Castanea  vulgar  is  var.  americana  A.  de  C. 

Nomenclature. 

Chestnut  (local  and  common  name). 

Locality. 

New  England,  New  York  to  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi. 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  Michigan.  Best  on  western  slope  of 
Alleghany  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  five  to  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  Fine  characteristic  shape,  not  easily  distin- 
guished from  Red  Oak  in  winter.  Blossoms  in  midsummer. 
Prickly  burrs  contain  three  thin-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  coarse-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  liable  to  check  and  warp  in  drying. 
Easily  split.  Very  durable  in  exposed  positions. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  railway  ties,  posts,  fencing,  sills. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9800. 

Remarks. 

The  nuts  of  the  foreign  species  (C.  vesca}  as  well  as  those  of  the 
domestic  species  are  much  prized.  The  former  are  larger  and 
the  latter  sweeter.  One  of  the  latest  trees  to  blossom. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BRO4DLEAF  WOODS.  59 

Chinquapin.  Caslanea pumila  (Linn.}  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Chinquapin   (Del.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Va.,  W.   Va.,  N.  C,  S.  C,  Ga., 
Ala.,  Fla.,  Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ark.,  Ohio,  Ky.,  Mo.,  Mich.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkan- 
sas, Ohio,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

A  small  tree,  sometimes  forty-five  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet 
or   over   in    diameter.       Sometimes   reduced    to    low   shrub. 
Small  prickly  burr  with  single  small  chestnut-colored  nut. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood     dark     brown,     sapwood     hardly    distinguishable. 
Coarse-grained,  annual  layers  marked  by  rows  of  open  ducts. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Rather   heavy,    hard,   strong.      Durable   in    exposed    positions. 
Liable  to  check  in  drying. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Posts,  rails,  railway  ties,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,620,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 
Remarks. 


The  Chinquapin  Castanopsis  chrysophylla,  is  a  tree  with  char- 
acteristics  between  oak  and  chestnut.  Its  wood  is  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  the  Chinquapin  Castanea  pumila,  and  is 
sometimes  used  for  implements. 


BEECH.  IRONWOOD. 

(Fagus.}      (Carpinus,  Ostrya,  etc.] 

Beech  is  well  known  on  the  eastern  continent.  The 
common  beech  (Fagus  atropunicea)  is  the  only  American 

representative.  Eastern  species 
have  figured  in  literature  since  the 
time  of  Virgil.  The  northern  na- 
tions early  wrote  upon  thin  tablets 
of  beechwood,  and  boc,  bok,  and 
bnc/ic,  the  northern  names  for 
beech,  finally  gave  origin  to  the 

BEECH  (fugus  atropunicea}.  ,     ,  „ 

word  book."  American  Indians 
believed  that  the  beech  was  proof  against  lightning. 

Beechwood  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  not  durable  when 
exposed,  and  somewhat  subject  to  attack  by  insects.  European 
engineers  employ  it  to  a  considerable  extent  in  construction, 
but  it  is  seldom  used  in  America  save  for  indoor  finish,  furni- 
ture, handles,  flooring,  and  the  like.  The  small  edible  nuts, 
known  as  beech-mast,  are  pressed  abroad  for  a  fixed  oil, 
resembling  and  used  in  place  of  that  from  the  olive.  They 
are  seldom  gathered  in  this  country,  but  are  devoured  by 
animals.  Beech-trees  have  smooth,  light-colored  bark,  and 
are  very  attractive  in  their  winter  appearance.  They  may  be 
recognized  earlier  in  the  season  by  their  small  prickly  burrs, 
each  containing  two  triangular,  sharp-edged  nuts.  There  are 
fifteen  or  more  species  known  to  belong  to  this  genus.  Fagus 
is  from  pJiago,  to  eat,  and  refers  to  the  nut. 

The  name  Ironwood  has  been  applied  to  Blue  Beech 
(Carpinus  caroliniand],  to  the  Hornbeam  (Ostrya  virginiana), 
and  to  at  least  eight  other  North  American  species  affording 
unusually  hard  and  heavy  woods,  such  as  are  used  for  handles 


*Liber,  the  Latin   for  book,  is  from  liber,  the  inner  bark  of  a   tree,  while 
papyrus,  the  Latin  for  paper,  is  from  an  Egyptian  reed   of  that   name.      The 
words  "book,"  "library,"  and  "  paper"  are  thus  drawn  from  trees  and  plants, 
•f-  Keeler  notes  experiments  made  to  prove  resistance  on  part  of  beechwood. 

60 


PLATE  12.     BEECH  (Fagus). 


«       r'     •     *  *  ^     «        *' 
»,  "      *- '     •'  f. 

*''•      'vr,''  I  ,'<• 

,.,  ' 

i 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  61 

and  implements.*  Trunks  of  trees  affording  these  woods  are 
generally  small  and  the  weight  of  the  woods  is  so  great  as 
to  prevent  their  use  in  construction. 

*Prosopis  juliflora,  Olneya  tesota,  Guajacum  sanctum,  Cliftonia  monophylla, 
Cyrilla  racemiflora,  Exothea  paniculata,  Bumelia  tenax,  Bumelia  lycioides. 
(Sudworth.) 


62  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Beech  J  Fagus  atropunicea  (Marsh.]  Sudworth. 

(  Fagus  ferruginea  Ait. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Beech    (local    and    common         White    Beech    (Me.,    Ohio., 

name).     .  Mich.). 

Red   Beech   (Me.,    Vt.,   Ky.,          Ridge  Beech  (Ark.). 
Ohio.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Wisconsin 
and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet,  occasionally  higher;  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Small  rough  burr  contains  two  thin-shelled  nuts. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish,  variable  shades,  sapwood  white.  Rather 
close-grained,  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  strong,  tough,  not  durable  when  exposed.  Takes  fine 
polish.  Liable  to  check  during  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shoe-lasts,  plane-stocks,  ship-building,  handles,  and  fuel.  Car- 
pentry (abroad),  wagon-making,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

42. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,720,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

The  nuts  are  seldom  gathered  in  the  United  States,  nor  is  the 
wood  there  often  utilized  in  carpentry.  This  is  sometimes 
divided  commercially  into  Red  and  White  Beech,  according 
to  color  of  wood.  Such  division  has  no  botanical  basis. 


OF  F^RTMENT  OF  CIVIL  ENGI N  EEHi 

t  'V.T\  "*-•%•*,      •«*. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  63 

Ironwood,  Blue  Beech.     Carpinus  caroliniana  Walt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Ironwood,  Blue  Beech  (local  Hornbeam     (Me.,     N.      H., 

and  common  name).  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y., 

Water  Beech   (R.    I.,    N.  Y.,  N.   J.,   Pa.,    Del.,    N.    C., 

Pa.,    Del.,   W.  Va.,   Ohio,  S.  C.,  Ala.,  Tex.,  Ky.,  111., 

111.,    Ind.,   Mich.,    Minn.,  Kans.,  Minn.). 

Nebr.,  Kans.). 

Locality. 

Quebec  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height.  Six  inches  to  occasionally  two  feet 
in  diameter.  A  small  tree,  dark  bluish-gray;  bark  resembles 
that  of  beech  save  in  color. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  thick  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  hard,  tough,  strong,  heavy,  very  stiff,  inclined  to  check 
during  seasoning,  not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Levers,  tool -handles,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,630,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,300. 

Remarks. 

Prized  by  wheelwrights  in  Europe.  Resemblance  of  bluish  bark 
to  light-gray  bark  of  beech  gave  rise  to  name. 


64  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Ironwood,  Hop  Hornbeam.      Ostrya  virginina  Willd. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Ironwood,     Hop    Hornbeam  Hornbeam    (R.    I.,     N.    Y., 

(local  and  common  names).  Fla.  ,  S.  C.  ,  La.). 

Leverwood  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Hardback  (Vt.). 
N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Kans.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  one  foot  or  less  in  diameter. 
The  bark  exhibits  long  vertical  rows  of  small  squares.  Small 
fruit  resembles  hops.  Leaves  resemble  those  of  birch. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sometimes  white,  sapwood  lighter 
or  white.  Close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  strong,  hard,  heavy,  tough,  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  levers,  tool-handles,  axe-helves,  mill-cogs,  wedges. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,950,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Trees  over  twelve  inches  in  diameter  are  often  hollow. 


PLATE  13.     SYCAMORE  (Platanus  ocaaentalis}. 


Quartered  Sycamore  W(x>d. 


SYCAMORE. 

(Platanus.} 

The  name  Sycamore  applies  to  a  miple  (Acer  pseudo- 
platanus}  in  Europe,  to  a  fig-tree  (Ficus  sycomorus}  in  the 
Orient,*  and  to  the  buttonball  or  plane  tree  (Platanus}  in 
North  America.  Of  the  plane  trees  (Platanus}  the  common 
or  Oriental  plane  (Platanus  oricntalis}  is  a  native  of  Europe; 
the  plane,  buttonball,  or  sycamore  tree  (Platanus  occidentalis} 
is  a  native  and  common  tree  in  eastern  North  America ;  and 
the  California  plane,  buttonball, 
or  sycamore  (Platanus  raccmosa) 
is  a  native  of  western  North 
America. 

The  sycamore  stands  for  curi- 
osity, because  of  its  Biblical  as- 
sociation with  Zaccheus.  Many 
European  sycamores  were  planted 
by  religious  persons  during  the 
middle  ages  because  of  the  belief 
that  they  were  the  trees  thus  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible. 

,„.  „      .     ,     .          .  SYCAMORF.  (Plat  anus 

1  he    woods    afforded    by  the  ocrident<itts). 

American  sycamores  have  unusually  complicated,  cross- 
grained,  but  beautiful  structures,  difficult  to  work,  but  standing 
well  and  valued  for  cabinet  work  and  small  articles.  Ameri- 
can trees  are  often  very  large. 

American  buttonball  or  sycamore  trees  are  distinguished 
by  rough  balls  which  remain  hanging  on  long  stems  through- 
out the  winter.  The  bark  also  is  shed  to  an  unusual  extent  ; 
flakes  of  the  outer  cover  drop  away,  exposing  smooth  inner 
surfaces  so  white  as  to  appear  as  if  painted.  Six  or  seven 
species  are  included  in  the  genus;  three  occur  in  North 
America.  Platanus  is  from  plains,  signifying  broad,  and  refers 
to  the  shape  of  the  leaves. 

*  Brockhaus,  Konversations-Lexicon  (B.  15,  p.  536). 


66  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Sycamore.  ") 

Buttonwood.  >-  Plalanus  occidentalis  Linn. 

Buttonball-tree.         j 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sycamore,   Buttonwood,  But-  Plane  Tree  (R.  I.,  Del.,  S.  C., 

tonball     Tree     (local     and  Kans.,  Nebr.,  la.). 

common  names).  Water  Beech  (Del.). 

Buttonball  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  Platane  cotonier,  Bois  puant 

Fla.).  (La.). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska  and 
Texas.  Best  in  bottom  lands  of  Ohio  and  Mississippi  River 
basins. 

Features  of  Tree. 

.Ninety  to  over  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  six  to  sometimes 
twelve  feet  in  diameter.  Inner  bark  exposed  in  white  patches. 
Large  rough  balls  or  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained, 
compact  structures,  satiny  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 
Attractive  when  quartered. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  difficult  to  work,  not  strong,  stands  well  when  not 
exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Tobacco-boxes,  ox-yokes,  butcher-blocks,  cabinet-work. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,220,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9000. 

Remarks. 

Some  specimens  rank  among  the  largest  of  American  deciduous 
trees.  These  are  usually  hollow.  The  remarkably  rigid  bark 
does  not  stretch  to  accommodate  the  growth  and  is  thus  dis- 
carded to  an  unusual  degree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  '      67 

California  Sycamore.    Platanus  racemcsa  Nutt. 

Nomenclature. 

Sycamore,  Buttonwood,  Buttonball  Tree,  Buttonball  (Cali- 
fornia). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher; 
three  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The  bark  exfoliates  in  irreg- 
ular patches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained, 
compact  structure,  medullary  rays  numerous  and  conspicu- 
ous. Beautiful  when  quartered. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Brittle,  very  difficult  to  split  and  to  season.  Qualities  similar 
to  those  of  P.  occidentalis. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Decoration,  furniture,  similar  to  P.  occidentalis. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

30- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

800,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900. 

Remarks. 

Hough  mentions  *  a  tree  twenty-nine  feet  seven  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. 

*  "American  Woods,"  Part  6,  p.  36. 


BIRCH. 

(Betula.) 

The  birches  grow  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America, 
their  ranges  on  the  latter  continent  extending  far  into  the 
north.*  Their  history  is  remote  and  probably  began  with 
attention  to  the  bark  rather  than  to  the  wood. 

Birch-bark  is  smooth,  pliable,  water-tight,  and  by  reason 
of  its  resinous  oils  so  durable  that  it  often  remains  intact  long 
after  the  wood  inside  of  fallen  trees  has  disappeared.  It  is 
separable  into  thin  layers  and  was  early  employed  as  a  writing 
material.!  Houses  have  been  covered  by  it  and  it  has  been 
used  for  cordage,  utensils,  "damp  courses,"  and  even  rude 
clothing.  The  American  Indians  employed  it  for  canoes, 
tents,  troughs,  and  buckets.  The  wood  is  hard,  heavy, 
strong,  fine-grained,  and  beautiful.  It  shrinks  in  seasoning, 
works  easily,  stands  well  when  not  exposed.  It  is  used  for 
spools,  woodenware,  and  other  small  articles,  as  well  as  for 
interior  finish  and  cabinet  work.  Figured  birch  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  American  cabinet  woods.  %  Birch  is  often 
stained  so  as  to  imitate  cherry  arid  mahogany;  the  best  imita- 
tions of  the  latter  wood  are  of  birch.  Birch  is  commercially 
divided,  according  to  the  quantity  of  heartwood  present,  into 
white  birch  and  red  birch.  The  wood  is  "  white  "  when  the 
amount  is  small,  and  as  heartwood  increases  with  age  the 
same  tree  might  at  one  time  afford  white  and  at  another  red 
wood. 

Birch  trees  may  be  known  by  their  more  or  less  laminated 
bark  with  its  peculiar  long  horizontal  lenticles  or  dashes.  The 


*  Birch  forms  large  forests  in  the  North. 

•j-  Pliny  and  Plutarch  agree  that  the  famous  books  of  Numa  Pompilius,  written 
700  years  before  Christ,  were  upon  birch-bark.     (Keeler.) 

\  The  banquet-hall  of  the  famous  Auditorium  Hotel  in  Chicago  is  finished  in 
birch.     (Kidder.) 

68 


PLATE  14.     BIRCH  (Betula}. 


' 


\ 


Yellow  Birch  Tree  (Betula  tutea).  White  Birch  Bark  (Betula 

Yellow  Birch  Foliage  (Betula  lutea),  *     Bircli  Wood. 


'-  :  '  • 

»«•    e    *r 
•  »  »    O 


EXOGENOUS  SERlES-BRO/tDLE/tF  WOODS.  69 

leaves  of  the  several  birches  differ  but  little,  but  the  decided 
colors  exhibited  by  their  barks  give  names  and  serve  to  distin- 
guish the  species.  Nine  of  the  twenty-four  known  species  of 
birch  occur  in  North  America;  six  are  trees  and  the  others  low 
shrubs.  Betula  is  said  to  be  derived  from  bitumen. 


70  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

White  Birch.  Betula  populifolia  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Birch  (local  and  com-  Oldfield  Birch,  Poverty  Birch 

mon  name).  (Me.). 

Gray    Birch     (Me.,     R.     I.,  Poplar-leaved     Birch,     Small 

Mass.).  White  Birch  (Vt.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Delaware. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  about  one  foot  in  diameter. 
Durable,  laminated,  smooth,  white  bark  on  large  branches 
and  on  trunk,  save  near  ground;  is  not  very  easily  detached 
from  tree.  Tremulous  leaves. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  not  strong  or  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Clothes-pins,  shoe-pegs,  tooth-picks,  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,036,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,000. 

Remarks. 

The  white  bark  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  paper  birch  in  that 
it  does  not  cover  the  whole  trunk  and  in  that  it  remains  more 
perfectly  intact. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  7 1 

Paper  Birch,  White  Birch.     Beiula  papyri/era  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Suchvorth.) 

Paper    Birch,     White     Birch  Boleau  (Quebec). 

(local  and  common  names).  Canoe  Birch  (Me.,Vt.,  N.  H., 

Silver  Birch  (Minn.).  R.    I.,  Mass.,    N.  Y.,  Pa., 

Large  White  Birch  (Vt.).  Wis.,  Mich.,  Minn.). 

Locality. 

Northern  United  States,  northward  into  Canada,  valley  of  the 
Yukon  in  Alaska. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  two  and 
one-half  feet  in  diameter.  Smooth  white  exterior  bark  on 
large  limbs  and  trunks  away  from  ground.  Brown  or  orange 
inner  surfaces  of  bark.  Splits  freely  into  thin  paper-like 
layers. 

Color,  Grain,  or  Appearance  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Very  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  hard,  tough,  not  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Spools,  shoe-lasts,  pegs,  paper-pulp,  fuel,  bark  used  in  canoes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

37- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,850,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

15,000. 

Remarks. 

Starch  is  said  to  be  manufactured  from  inner  bark  by  Northern 
Indians.  Reaches  higher  latitude  than  any  American  decid- 
uous tree.  Forms  forests.  The  name  White  Birch  is  because 
of  the  color  of  the  bark. 


72  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Red  Birch.  Betula  nigra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Red  Birch  (local  and  common  Ala.,     Miss.,     Tex.,    Mo., 

name).  111.,  Wis.,  Ohio). 

Black    Birch     (Fla.,     Tenn.,  Birch   (N.   C.,    S.    C,  Miss., 

Tex.).  La.). 

River   Birch    (Mass.,    R.    I.,  Water  Birch  (W.  Va.,  Kans.). 

N.  J.,   Del.,   Pa.,  W.  Va.,  Blue  Birch  (Ark.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 
and  Texas.  Best  development  in  south  Atlantic  and  lower 
Mississippi  valley  regions. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  eigthy  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  larger.  Dark  red  brown  scaly  bark  on  trunk. 
Red  to  silvery-white  bark  on  branches.  Bark  separates  in 
thin  paper-like  scales  curling  outward. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  yellowish  white.  Close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  rather  hard  and  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  woodenware,  shoe-lasts,  ox-yokes.  Inferior  cask- 
hoops  from  branches. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13, 100. 

Remarks. 

Dark  brown  bark,  whence  name  Red  Birch.  Prefers  moist 
bottoms,  whence  name  River  Birch. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF   WOODS.  73 

Yellow  Birch.  Betula  lutea  Michx.  f. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Yellow  Birch  (local  and  com-  Swamp  Birch  (Minn.). 

mon  name).  Silver  Birch  (N.  H.). 

Gray  Birch   (Vt.,  R.   I.,  Pa.,  Merisier,       Merisier      Rouge 

Mich.,  Minn.).  (Quebec). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland  to  North  Carolina,  westward  intermittently  to- 
Minneosta  and  Texas.  Best  developed  north  of  the  Great 
Lakes. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  irt 
diameter.  A  medium-sized  tree.  Bark  on  trunk  silvery  gray 
to  silvery  yellow,  branches  green  to  lustrous  or  dull  brown. 
Bark  exfoliates,  causing  a  rough,  ragged  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure,  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  strong,  and  hard,  tough,  susceptible  of  high  polish. 
Qualities  suggest  those  of  maple.  Not  durable  when  exposed. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  buttons,  tassel-moulds,  pill-boxes,  spools,  and 
wheel -hubs. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

40. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,290,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,700. 

Remarks. 

Occasional  trees  have  thin  outer  bark  ruptured,  and  exhibit 
inner  bark  of  almost  metallic  yellow.  Lutea,  signifying 
yellow,  alludes  to  color  of  bark.  Inner  bark  has  pungent,, 
pleasant  flavor. 


74  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Sweet  Birch,  Cherry  Birch.     Betula  lento.  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sweet     Birch,    Cherry     Birch          Mahogany      Birch     (N.      C., 

(many  localities).  S.  C. ). 

Black    Birch     (N.    H.,     Vt.,          River  Birch  (Minn.). 

Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,          Mountain  Mahogany  (S.  C.). 

N.   J.,    Pa.,   W.   Va.,  Ga., 

III.,  Ind.,  Mich  ,  Ohio). 

Locality. 

Newfoundland  intermittently  to  Illinois,  southward  intermit- 
tently along  Alleghanies  to  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Florida. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter,  dark 
reddish-brown  bark,  resembling  that  of  cherry;  does  not 
separate  into  layers  as  paper-birch.  Leaves,  bark,  and  twigs 
sweet,  spicy,  and  aromatic. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  brown  tinged  with  red,  sapwood  light  brown 
or  yellow,  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  strong,  hard,  receives  stains  and  high  satin-like 
polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Woodenware,  furniture,  ship-building  (Canada),  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

47- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,010,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,000. 

Remarks. 

A  common  tree  in  Northern  States.  Wood  often  stained  so  as 
to  resemble  cherry  and  mahogany.  Essences  suggest  winter- 
green,  contain  much  salicylic  acid,  and  are  used  in  medicine. 
The  name  "  cherry  "  is  because  bark  resembles  that  of  cherry. 
"  Sweet  "  is  because  of  essences. 


PLATE  15.     LOCUST  (Rolrinia,  Gleditsia}. 


Black  Locust  Tree  and  Bark'  (K'o'fnnia  p'seudacada . ) 

Honey  Locust  (Gleditsia  triacanthos}. 

Locust  Wood. 


LOCUST,  MESQUITE. 

(Robinia,  Gleditsia,  Prosopis.) 

The  name  Locust  applies  to  species  of  three  distinct 
genera,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  family  Leguminosae.  The 
black  locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia] ,  the  honey  locust  (Gleditsia 
triacantlws),  and  the  Mesquite  or  honey  locust  (Prosopis  jttli- 
flord]  are  principal  representatives  of  their  respective  kinds. 
The  first-named  genus  is  North  American,  the  other  two  have 
species  on  both  continents. 

Black  locust  wood  is  tough,  dur- 
able, unequalled  for  torsional  strength 
and  resilience,  and  is  in  every  way  in 
the  first  rank  of  American  woods.  It 
is  fitted  not  only  for  exposed  con- 
structions, but  for  finer  articles ;  hubs, 
pins,  bolts,  and  trenails  having  no 
superiors.  Trees  develop  rapidly 
when  young,  heart  wood  forming  as 
early  as  the  third  year.  Later  growth 
and  ultimate  commercial  value  in  the 
United  States  are  much  affected  by 
insect  borers,  which  practically  limit 
the  usefulness  of  the  species.  The 
black  locust  may  be  known  by  its 
clusters  of  large  pea-blossom-shaped 
flowers,  its  bean-shaped  pods,  three 
to  six  inches  in  length,  and  by  the  BLACK  LocuST  (Robinia pseud- 

*  acacia). 

prickles  on  the  bark.    The  genus  has 

six  species,  four  of  which  are   natives   of  the  United  States.* 

Robinia  is  from  Robin,  the  name  of  an  early  French  botanist. 

*  Three  of  the  four  United  States  species  are  trees  ;  the  other  species  of  this 
genus  grow  in  Mexico.  No  one  is  approximately  as  important  or  well  knoWn  as 
the  Black  Locust. 

75 


76  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

The  black  locust  has  been  extensively  introduced  into  Europei 
both  for  ornamentation  and  for  wood.* 

The  wood  of  the  honey  locust  resembles  that  of  the  black 
locust,  but  is  seldom  used  or  appreciated  save  for  fencing  and 
similarly  unimportant  purposes.  Trees  grow  rapidly  and  are 
not  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects,  so  that  they  frequently 
attain  to  normal  proportions.  The  flowers  are  much  smaller 
than  those  of  the  black  locust,  but  the  pods  are  several  times 
as  long  (twelve  to  eighteen  inches).  These  often  curl  in 
drying  and  are  thus  rolled  to  some  distance  by  the  wind. 
Thorns  or  spines  are  present  on  some  individuals  and  are  often 
from  three  to  six  inches  in  length.  The  foliage  resembles  but 
is  more  delicate  than  that  of  the  black  locust.  There  is 
at  least  one  other  American  species.  Gleditsia  is  from 
Gleditsch,  the  name  of  a  botanist. 

Mesquite,  also  called  honey  locust,  affords  wood  that  is 
hard,  heavy,  and  almost  indestructible  in  exposed  positions. 
The  tree  grows  in  the  desert  where  vegetation  would  often 
seem  to  be  impossible.  The  roots  are  developed  to  great  size 
by  their  search  for  water,  and  are  gathered  and  burned  in  the 
absence  of  other  fuel.  The  trunks  are  small,  but  afford  posts 
and  ties.  There  are  pods  filled  with  rich  edible  pulp.  Sixteen 
or  more  species  belong  to  this  genus,  prosopis,  of  which  one 
other,  the  screw-pod  mesquite  (Prosopis  odorata],  is  found  in 
the  United  States. 

*  Black  Locust  was  introduced  into  Europe  early  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
being  first  cultivated  by  the  son  of  Jean  Robin,  for  whom  the  genus  is  named. 
Few  American  species  have  received  such  attention  abroad. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF   WOODS.  77 

Locust,  Black  Locust,  Yellow  Locust.     Robinia  pseudacacia  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Locust,    Black    Locust,    Yel-  Red    Locust,    Green    Locust 

low      Locust     (local     and  (Tenn.). 

common  names).  Honey  Locust  (Minn.). 

FalseAcacia  (S.  C  ,  Ala., Tex.,  White  Locust  (R.  I.,  N.   Y., 

Minn.).  Tenn.). 

Pea-flower    Locust,   Post  Lo-  Acacia  (La.). 

cust  (Md.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Alleghany  region,  widely  cultivated  in  United  States 
east  of  Rocky  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  or  over  in 
diameter.  Leaves  curl  or  close  at  night.  Long  spikes  or 
briers  on  young  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  thin  sapwood,  light-greenish  yellow. 
Close-grained  and  compact.  Annual  layers  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  very  hard,  strong,  and  durable  under  extreme  conditions 
of  wet  and  dry. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Long  wooden  bolts  or  pins  called  treenails.  Posts,  ties,  con- 
struction, turnery,  ship-ribs,  ornamentations,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,830,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1 8, 100. 

Remarks. 

Often  a  low  shrub.  Extensively  planted,  particularly  in  West, 
but  subject  to  attack  by  borers.  One  of  the  most  valuable 
of  American  timber  trees.  Heartwood  is  formed  very  early 
in  this  species.  Pseudacacia  means  false  acacia  or  imitation 
of  acacia. 


THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 


Honey  Locust.  Gleditsia  triacanthos  Linn. 


Honey  or  Honeyshucks  (R.I., 
N.  J.,  Va.,  Fla.,  Iowa). 

Honeyshucks  Locust  (Ky.). 

Sweet  Locust  (S.  C.,  La., 
Kans.,  Nebr. ). 

Piquant  Amourette  (La.). 

Confederate  Pintree  (Fla.). 

Locust  (Nebr.). 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Honey  Locust  (local  and  com- 
mon name). 

Thorn  or  Thorny  Locust  Tree 
or  Acacia  (N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Ind.,  Tenn.,  La.). 

Three-thorned  Acacia  (Mass., 
R.  I.,  La.,  Tex.,  Neb., 
Mich.). 

Black  Locust  (Miss.,  Tex., 
Ark.,  Kans.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Best  in  lower  Ohio  River  basin. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Frequent  long  thorns.*  Light  thin  foliage. 
Brown  pods  contain  sweet  pulp. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  bright  brown  or  red,  sapwood  yellowish,  annual 
layers  strongly  marked,  coarse-grained,  medullary  rays  con- 
spicuous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fence-posts,  rails,  wagon-hubs,  rough  construction,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

42. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,540,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,100. 

Remarks. 

Widely  cultivated  for  landscape  effect.  Young  trees  used  for 
forming  hedges. 


*  Thorns  plentiful  on  some  individuals,  but  absent  on  others. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES- BROADLEAF   WOODS*  79 

Mesquite.  Prosopis  juliflora  (Swariz)  de  C. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Mesquite  (Tex.,  N.  M.,  Ariz.,          Honey  Pod  or  Honey  Locust 

Cal.).  (Tex.,  N.  M.). 

Algaroba  (Tex.,  N.  M.,  Ariz.,          Ironwood  (Tex.). 
Cal.). 

Locality. 

Texas,  west  to  San  Bernardino  Mountains,  California.  Also 
Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada  and  northern  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  Some- 
times low  shrub.  Roots  often  very  large.  Pods  with  sweet 
pulp. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  dark  brown,  often  red.  Sapwood  clear 
yellow.  Close-grained,  compact  structure,  distinct  medullary 
rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Weak,  difficult  to  work,  heavy,  hard,  very  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  fencing,  ties,  house-beams,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

47- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6800. 

Remarks. 

A   locally  important   tree.     Trees   sometimes  stunted   by   fires 
have  numerous  roots.      Large  roots  used  for  fuel. 


Holsinger,  "Forestry  and  Irrigation."     Vol.  VIII,  No.  n,  p.  447. 


WHITEWOOD    OR    TULIP-TREE  WOOD,   POPLAR    OR    COTTONWOOD, 

(Liriodendron.)  (Populus.) 

CUCUMBER-TREE  WOOD,  BASSWOOD. 

(Magnolia.  )  (  Tilia.  ) 

These  trees  are  not  related,  but  are  all  noted  for  woods 
with  soft,  fine  qualities,  such  as  fit  them  for  carvings,  wooden- 
ware,  and  paper-pulp.  No  one  of  the  woods  is  durable  when 
exposed,  and  all  are  used  for  boxes  because  they  nail  without 
splitting.  The  names  are  commercially  interchangeable. 

The  whitewood  or  tulip  tree  (Liriodendron  tidipiferd}  is  a 
native  of  America  and  an  acclimated  tree  in  Europe.  It  is  the 
sole  surviving  species  of  its  genus.  The  wood  is  soft,  stiff, 

clean,  fine,  straight-grained,  and 
obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces. 
Much  whitewood  is  made  into 

^  lumber,  the  wood  standing  among 

those  of  the  broad!  eaf  series  as 
white  pine  does  among  the  coni- 
fers. Whitewood  is  particularly 
suitable  for  carvings.  In  spite 
of  its  name  it  is  largely  greenish 
yellow.  It  is  often  divided  com- 
mercially, according  to  color,  into 
"white  poplar"  and  "yellow  poplar."  Trunks  often  attain 
to  a  very  large  size.  Matthews  mentions  a  specimen  *  thirty- 
three  feet  in  circumference.  The  species  may  be  known  by  its 
large  tulip-shaped  flower.  Liriodendron  is  from  two  Greek 
words  meaning  lily  and  tree. 

The  poplars,  sometimes  called  cottonwoods  because  of 
their  seeds"  covered  with  a  cotton-like  down,  are  represented 
on  both  continents.  The  wood  was  made  into  shields  by  the 


V 


WHITEWOOD  (LiriodenJron 
tulipifera). 


*_F.  Schuyler  Matthews,  "Familiar  Trees  "  (Appleton,  1901),  p.  39. 

80 


PLATE  16.      \YHITE\YOOD  OR  TULIP  TREE  (l.irwdenuron  tulipifera\ 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  81 

ancients,  because  it  was  light  and  tough  and  would  indent 
without  breaking.  The  wood  is  often  substituted  for  white- 
wood,  but  is  less  desirable,  although  valuable  as  a  basis  for 
paper-pulp.  The  trees  may  be  known  by  the  long  drooping 
catkins  that  appear  early  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves,  and 
that  are  followed  by  white  downy  seeds  that  soon  escape  to 
whiten  the  surrounding  ground.  The  poplars  are  noted  for 
foliage  more  or  less  constantly  in  agitation.  This  peculiarity, 
so  pronounced  in  the  aspen  (Populus  tremuloides),  is  due  to 
the  very  long  petioles  or  leaf-stems.  The  cottonwoods  abound 
in  many  otherwise  arid  regions  of  American  Western  deserts. 

The  cucumber  trees  are  of  the  magnolia  family  and  grow 
in  many  of  the  Eastern  States.  The  wood  resembles  and  is 
probably  often  mistaken  for  whitewood,  for  which  it  is  a  fair 
substitute.  The  trees  may  be  known  by  their  fruit,  which 
resembles  vegetable  cucumbers.  Magnolia  is  from  Magnol,  a 
botanist  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Basswood  is  a  name  applied  to  trees  known  in  Europe  and 
America  as  limes,  lime  trees,  lind,  linden,  tiel,  tiel  trees, 
bass,  and  basswood  trees.  The  trees  and  their  wood  were 
early  esteemed,  the  first  for  their  shade  and  appearance,  and 
the  last  for  their  working  qualities,  which  resemble,  but  are 
inferior  to,  whitewood.*  The  trees  are  characterized  by  their 
dense  foliage  and  clusters  of  small  cream-colored  fragrant 
flowers,  so  attractive  to  bees  as  to  have  originated  the  further 
name  bee-tree.  Tilia  arises  from  the  ancient  name  for  these 
trees. 

*  The  carvings  of  Gibbons,  a  famous  English  artist,  are  said  to  have  been  made 
entirely  of  linden,  no  other  available  wood  being  so  even-grained  and  free  from 
knots.  (Keeler. ) 


82  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Tulip  Tree,  Whitewood,  Yellow  Poplar.   Liriodendron  tulipifera  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Tulip  Tree,  Whitewood,  Yd-  Hickory  Poplar  (Va.,  W.  Va., 

low  Poplar  (local  and  com-  N.  C. ). 

mon  names).  Blue  Poplar  (Del.,  W.  Va. ). 

Poplar  (R.    I.,    Del.,   N.  C.,  Popple  (R.  I.). 

S.  C.,  Fla.,  Ohio).  Cucumber  Tree  (N.  Y.). 

Tulip  Poplar  (Del.,  Pa.,  S.  C.,  Canoewood  (Tenn.). 

111.). 

Locality. 

New  England  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan 
and  Mississippi. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  six  to  twelve  feet 
in  diameter.  Tulip-shaped  flowers  in  spring.  Greenish 
cones  dry  and  remain  after  leaves  have  fallen. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow  or  greenish  brown,  thin  sapwood, 
nearly  white.  Close,  straight-grained,  compact  structure,  free 
from  knots. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  moderately  strong,  brittle,  easily  worked,  durable. 
Hard  to  split,  shrinks  little,  resembles  white  pine,  stands  well. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  interior  finish,  shingles,  boat-building,  pumps,  wooden- 
ware,  shelves,  the  bottoms  of  drawers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Very  large  trees  formerly  common.  Indians  hollowed  logs  into 
boats.  "  Some  large  enough  to  carry  twenty  or  thirty 
persons"  (Hough),  whence  name  canoewood.  Tulipifera, 
signifying  turbans  and  to  bear,  refers  to  flowers.  One  of  the 
largest  as  well  as  most  useful  of  American  deciduous  trees. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  83 

Poplar,  Largetooth  Aspen.     Populus  grandidentata  Michx. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Poplar,      Largetooth      Aspen         White  Poplar  (Mass.). 

(local  and  common  names).          Popple  (Me.). 
Largetooth  Poplar  (N.  C.).  Large  American  Aspen  (Ala. ). 

Large  Poplar  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Nova  Scotia  and  Delaware,  westward  intermittently  to  Minne- 
sota, Alleghany  Mountains  to  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  two  feet  or  more  in  diameter.  Irreg- 
ular points  or  teeth  on  margins  of  leaves.  Smooth  gray  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sap  wood  nearly  white,  close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Soft,  light,  weak. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Paper-pulp  and  occasionally  wooden  ware. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

The  several  "poplars"  are  much  prized  for  paper-pulp.  The 
quaking  aspen  (P.  tremuloides)  has  long  leaf-stalks  flattened 
vertically  to  the  leaf-surface,  so  that  leaves  tremble  in  slight 
winds. 


84  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

-,  .  (  Populus  delloides  Marsh. 

Cottonwood.  momlifera  Aitt 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Cottonwood  (local  and  com-  Big  Cottonwood  (Miss.,  Neb.). 

mon  name).  Whitewood  (la.). 

Carolina   Poplar  (Pa.,   Miss.,  Cotton  Tree  (N.  Y.). 

La.,  N.  M.,  Ind.,  Ohio).  Necklace  Poplar  (Tex.,  Col.). 

Yellow    Cottonwood     (Ark.,  Broadleaved          Cottonwood 

la.,  Neb.).  (Colo.). 

Locality. 

Canada  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  four  to  five  feet  in 
diameter,  occasional  ry  much  larger.  Long  catkins  distribute 
cotton-like  fibres. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood,  dark  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  weak,  liable  to  warp,  difficult  to  season. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Greatly  valued  in  manufacture  of  paper-pulp,  also  packing- 
boxes,  fence-boards,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

24. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,400,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

i  o,  900. 

Remarks. 

Monilifera  is  from  the  Latin  monoh'num,  a  necklace,  and  fero, 
to  bear,  and  refers  to  the  long  necklace  or  catkin. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  85 

Black  Cottonwood.     Populus  Irichocarpa  Torr.  and  Gr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Black     Cottonwood     (Oreg.,          Cottonwood  (Oreg,,  Cal.). 

Cal.).  Balm  Cottonwood  (Cal.). 

Balsam     Cottonwood,     Balm 
(Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Alaska  to  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

A  large  tree  sometimes  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height  and 
four  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  dull  brown,   sapwood  nearly  white,   compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  weak. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Staves,  woodenware  (local). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,580,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Largest  deciduous  tree  of  Puget  Sound  district  (Sargent). 


86  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Cucumber  Tree.  Magnolia  acuminata  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Cucumber  Tree  (R.  I.,  Mass.,     Mountain  Magnolia  (Miss.,  Ky.). 
N.   Y.,  Pa.,   N.  C,   S.   C.,     Black  Lin,  Cucumber  (W.  Va.). 
Ala.,  Miss.,  La,,  Ark.,  Ky.,     Magnolia  (Ark.). 
W.  Va.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  111.). 

Locality. 

New  York  to  Illinois,  southward  through  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee to  Gulf  (intermittently). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  occasionally  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  four 
feet  in  diameter.  A  large,  handsome,  symmetrical  tree,  with 
cones  resembling  cucumbers. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish  yellow,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close- 
grained,  compact  structure.  Satiny,  thin  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable.  Qualities  similar  to  white- 
wood. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-making,  cheap  furniture,  flooring,  pump-logs,  troughs, 
crates,  packing-boxes.  Used  similarly  to  L.  tulipifera. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,310,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9500. 

Remarks. 

Wood  resembles  and  is  often  sold  for  tulip-tree  wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  87 

Basswood,  Linn,  Linden.     Tilia  americana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Basswood,       Linn,     Linden,  Whitewood  (Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Ark., 

American      Linden     (local  Minn.). 

and  common  names).  Yellow  Basswood,  Lein  (Ind.). 

Limetree  (R.  I.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Beetree  (Vt.,  W.  Va.,  Wis.). 

Ala.,  Minn.,  La.,  111.).  White  Lind  (W.  Va.). 

Black  or  Smooth -leaved  Lime-  Wickup  (Mass.). 

tree  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Georgia,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Wide  range. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
occasionally  larger.  Large  smooth  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  or  reddish  brown,  thick  sapwood  nearly 
similar,  very  straight  and  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  easily  worked,  tough,  not  strong  nor  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Sides  and  backs  of  drawers,  bodies  of  carriages,  woodenware, 
paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  190,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8300. 

Remarks. 

Basswood  refers  to  the  inner  bark  or  "  bast, "  sometimes  utilized 
for  cordage.  The  flowers  attract  bees,  whence  the  name  bee- 
tree.  White  Basswood,  (Tilia  heterophylla,)  is  not  distinguished 
commercially. 


WILLOW. 

(Salix.) 

The  willows  are  very  widely  distributed  over  both  con- 
tinents, and  their  history  extends  back  over  a  very  considerable 
period.  Pliny  states  that  Britons  used  to  make  voyages  in 
boats  of  willow.  The  willow  mentioned  in  the  Bible  was  the 
Salix  babylonica,  or  weeping  willow,  later  acclimated  in  this 
country. 

The  principal  experience  with  the  tough,  light,  workable, 
elastic  wood  has  been  in  Europe.  The  ancients  used  it  for 
shields,  because  it  was  one  of  the  woods  that  would  indent 
without  breaking.  Lazlett  states  that  it  is  used  for  cart-linings 
because  it  will  not  splinter  when  struck  by  stones.  It  has 
been  used  for  lap-boards,  cricket-bats,  keels,  paddles,  and 
water-wheels.  It  resists  heat  and  friction  and  is  therefore  used 
for  lining  friction-brakes.  Willow  charcoal  ignites  readily  and 
is  highly  esteemed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finer  kinds  of 
gunpowder.  The  bark  is  used  in  tanning.  The  little  branches 
have  long  been  associated  with  baskets  and  woven  work. 
American  trees  are  seldom  cut  up  into  lumber,  but  are  valued 
for  shade  and  appearance,  and  are  often  planted  along  the 
banks  of  streams  to  prevent  erosion. 

Willows  grow  very  rapidly  and  have  a  characteristic  and 
attractive  appearance.  They  usually  prefer  low  moist  places. 
There  are  so  many  hybrids  and  peculiar  species  as  to  render 
classification  in  all  cases  difficult.*  Black  willow  is  the  native 
species,  oftenest  attaining  to  tree  size  in  North  America.  The 
White,  Crack,  Bedford,  and  Goat  Willows  (Salix  alba,  S.  fra- 
gilis,  S.  russeliana,  and  6".  capred]  are  said  to  afford  good 
wood.  Salix  is  said  to  be  from  the  Celtic  sal,  meaning  near, 
and  Us,  water.  Salicylic  acid  is  abundantly  present  in  the  bark 
of  some  species. 

*  About  140  species  and  varieties  of  the  willow  family  have  been  enumerated. 

88 


PLATE  17.     BLACK  WILLOW  (Saiix  nigra). 


*l  "     *•  J     '•     "    *  ,'fr    '       ' 

f    V    f  *  ^      S.  "--    •   -      * 

*  '-  '     ~-, 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES- BROADLEAF  WOODS.  89 

Black  Willow.  Salix  nigra  Marsh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Black  Willow  (local  and  com-  Willow   (N.  Y.,    Pa.,   N.   C., 

mon  name).  S.   C.,    Miss.,    Tex.,    Cal., 

Swamp  Willow  (N.  C.,  S.  C.).  Ky.,  Mo.,  Neb.). 

Locality. 

New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Dakota, 
Arizona,  and  California,  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Long 
narrow  leaf,  characteristic  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  weak,  checks  badly  in  drying,  readily  worked. 
Dents  without  splitting. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lap-boards,  basket-making,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

550,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6000. 

Remarks. 

Prefers  borders  of  rivers  and  bottom  lands.  Many  varieties  of 
willow  grow  in  the  United  States.  No  one  is  used  to  any 
extent  in  construction. 


CATALPA. 

(Catalpa. ) 

Many  kinds  of  wood  that  were  formerly  plentiful  are  now 
much  less  so.  Attention  is  being  turned  to  trees  that  give 
best  results  under  artificial  conditions.  Catalpa,  formerly  but 
little  known,  now  bids  fair  to  become  of  some  importance  in 
this  connection. 

The  catalpa  grows  rapidly  and  produces  a  coarse,  brittle, 
weak,  but  durable  and  desirable,  lumber,  well  fitted  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  railways  and  other  branches  of  construc- 
tion where  the  annual  consumption  is  the  largest.  Fifty 
thousand  catalpa  trees  have  recently  been  planted  by  a  Western 
railway  at  a  cost  of  one  cent  apiece.  Catalpas  at  Hutchison, 
Kansas,  were  large  enough  to  cut  for  posts  at  the  end  of  six 
years.*  A  sample  tie  recently  removed  from  a  Western  rail- 
way was  found  to  be  perfect  after  fifteen  years  of  service. 
Mr.  John  Brown  t  mentions  specimens  sixteen  inches  in 
diameter  seventeen  years  after  planting.  The  species  Catalpa 
speciosa  is  said  to  be  much  the  more  desirable  in  that  it  is 
hardy  and  reaches  a  tall  upright  form. 

The  catalpa  may  be  known  by  its  showy  flowers,  'suggest- 
ing those  of  the  horse  chestnut.  These  are  succeeded  by  long 
pods  filled  with  many- winged  seeds  and  often  used  by  children 
as  cigars. 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Bulletins  27  and  37. 
f  The  Forester,  October,  1900,  and  November,  1902. 

Kansas  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  108. 

9° 


PLATE   18.      CATALPA   (Cata(pa\ 


•  '  * 

ft     i 


\ 


VV5J.-s:..: 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  91 

Catalpa,  Hardy  Catalpa.     Catalpa  spedosa  Warder. 

Nomenclature.      (Suclworth. ) 

Catalpa  (R.  L,  N.  Y.,  La.,  Western  Catalpa  (Pa.,  Ohio, 
111.,  Ind.,  Mo.,  Wis.,  la.,  Kans.,  Neb.,  111.). 

Neb.,  Minn.).  Cigar  Tree  (Mo.,  la.). 

Hardy  Catalpa  (111.,  la.,  Kan.,  Indian  Bean,  Shawneewood 
Mich.).  (Ind.). 

Bois  Pu'ant  (La.). 

Locality. 

Central  Mississippi  valley,  naturalized  in  many  localities. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  sixty  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  six  feet  in 
diameter;  well -formed  trunks.  Large,  white,  faintly  mottled 
flower,  long  pod  or  bean. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  brown,  thin  sapwood  lighter,  nearly  white, 
coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  clearly 
marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,  fence-posts,  rails,  adapted  for  cabinet-work  and 
interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity, 
i,  160,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9000. 

Remarks. 

Hardier  and  better  formed  trunks  than  afforded  by  C.  catalpa. 
A  rapid  grower;  sprouts  vigorously  from  stumps.  A  valuable 
tree,  promising  to  become  better  known.  Foliage  subject  to 
attack  by  insects. 

*  John  P.  Brown  ( The  Forester,  October,  1900). 


92  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

r   ,   .  f  Catalpa  Catalpa  (Linn.}  Karst. 

Lataipa.  \Catalpabignonioides  Wall. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Catalpa    (local   and   common  Indian  Bean  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  N.  Y., 

name).  N.  J.,  Pa.,"N.  C.,  111.). 

Indian  Cigar  Tree  (Pa.).  Catawba,    Catawba  Tree  (Del., 

Smoking  Bean  (R.  I.).  W.  Va.,  Ala.,  Fla.,  Kans.). 

Cigar  Tree  (R.  I.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Bean  Tree  (N.  J.,  Del.,  Pa.,  Va., 

W.    Va.,    MQ.,    111.,    Wis.,  La.,  Neb.). 

la.). 

Locality. 

Naturalized  in  many  localities  east  of  Rocky  Mountains. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  or  more  feet  in 
diameter.  Trunks  not  well  formed.  A  low,  wide  tree,  large 
heart-shaped  leaves,  characteristic  flower.  Long  slender  pod 
or  bean. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  is  light  pink  brown;  thin  sapwood  is  nearly 
white.  Coarse-grained,  compact. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Fence-posts,  railway  ties,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8300. 

Remarks. 

Grows  rapidly.  Pods  remain  on  tree  after  leaves  fall.  Some- 
times used  as  cigars  by  children.  Wood  is  less  desirable  than 
C.  speciosa. 


PLATE  19.     SASSAFRAS  (Sassafras  officinale}. 


SASSAFRAS.     MULBERRY. 

(Sassafras.)       (Morus.) 

The  sassafras  was  one  of  the  first  American  trees  to  be 
described  in  Europe,*  where  many  fictitious  properties  were 
early  credited  to  its  aromatic  essences.  The  wood  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  unusual  qualities,  but  trees  are  cut  for  lumber  as 
encountered  with  other  and  more  valuable  species  in  the  forest. 
The  mucilaginous  leaves  are  of  three  separate  shapes.  Some 
have  lobes  on  both  sides  of  the  central  surface,  others  have 
one  lobe  at  one  side  so  as  to  resemble  mittens,  while  yet 
others  on  the  same  branch  have  simple  oval  shapes.  The 
dark-blue  berries  on  bright-red  stems  are  so  eagerly  devoured 
by  birds  as  to  be  seldom  seen.  The  characteristic  flavor  is 
most  pronounced  in  the  bark  of  the  root. 

The  Red,  White,  and  Black  Mulberries  are  named  from 
the  color  of  their  fruits.  The  former,  which  is  the  American 
species,  has  wood  resembling  that  of  the  sassafras,  only  in  that 
it  is  not  distinguished  by  unusual  qualities.  Its  leaves,  like 
that  of  the  sassafras,  are  of  several  shapes  on  the  same  tree. 
The  very  sweet  fruit  resembles  blackberries  in  form.  The 
leaves  used  in  silkworm-culture  are  from  the  Russian  mulberry, 
a  cross  between  the  white  mulberry  and  black  mulberry  (M. 
alba  and  M.  nigra).t 

*  Monardes,  a  Spanish  writer,  described  the  sassafras  about  half  a  century 
after  the  landing  of  Columbus. 

f  Annual  Report  Chief  U.  S.  Forestry  Division,  1887 ;  also  Bulletins  on  Silk, 
published  by  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture. 

93 


94  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF   WOOD. 

cf  j  Sassafras  officinale  Nees  and  JEberm. 

(  Sassafras  sassafras  (Linn.)  Karst. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sassafras  (local  and  common         Sassafac,    Sassafrac   (W.   Va., 

name).  Del.). 

Saxifrax,   Sasifrax  Tree  (Fla.,          Gumbo  file  (La.,  negro). 

Tenn.  ). 

Locality. 

Vermont  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  larger,  often  low  shrub,  characteristic  odor  and 
leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood,  delicate  brown,  thin  sapwood  yellowish 
white,  coarse-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle,  checks  in  drying,  very  durable 
in  contact  with  soil.  Slightly  aromatic. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Pails,  buckets,  ox-yokes,  fence-posts,  and  rails. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8500. 

Remarks. 

Leaves  and  shoots  mucilaginous.     Bark  of  root  rich  in  highly 
aromatic  essences.     Sassafras  often  forms  thickets. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  95 

Red  Mulberry,  Mulberry.     Morus  rubra  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Red  Mulberry,  Mulberry  (local     Virginia  Mulberry  Tree  (Tenn. ). 

and  common  name).  Murier  Sauvage  (La.). 

Black  Mulberry  (N.  J.,   Pa., 

W.  Va.). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Nebraska 
and  Texas.  Best  in  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  River  basins. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  two  and  one  half  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Sweet  edible  fruit.  Dark  brown  broken  bark, 
smooth  gray  branches. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood,  light  orange  yellow,  thin  sapwood  whitish, 
coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  clearly 
marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  very  durable  in  contact  with  soil, 
receives  good  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Local  ship-building,  agricultural  implements,  fencing,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

11,700,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

I  I ,  OOO. 

Remarks. 

An  ornamental  tree.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  not  adapted 
to  silkworm  culture. 


BUCKEYE.  HORSE  CHESTNUT. 


(/EscuLus. ) 

The  buckeye  and  horse  chestnut  are  species  of  the  same 
genus.  The  common  horse  chestnut  (/Esculns  Jiippocastamun} 
was  once  thought  to  have  been  a  native  of  Asia,  but  it  is 
now  quite  certain  that  it  originated  on  the  mountains  of 
northern  Greece.  Trees  have  been  cultivated  in  Europe  for 
at  least  three  centuries  and  are  now  extensively  grown  over 

the  United  States.  The 
name  buckeye  is  generally 
applied  to  such  species  as  are 
natives  of  North  America. 

The  woods  resemble  one 
another  in  that  they  are 
soft,  straight-grained,  easily 
worked,  and  decay  rapidly 
when  exposed.  They  are 
employed  to  some  extent  in 
woodenware,  artificial  limbs, 
and  paper-making.  The  trees 
-  may  be  known  by  their  round 

Horse  Chestnut  IsEsctihis  hippocastanutri).  .    . 

prickly       pods,      containing 

smooth  chestnut-colored  bitter  nuts.  The  leaves  of  the  buckeye 
are  arranged  in  groups  of  five,  while  those  of  the  horse  chestnut 
are  in  groups  of  seven.  The  horse  chestnut  produces  showy 
spotted  flowers.  There  are  thirteen  species  of  this  genus,  eight 
of  which  are  North  American.  The  name  "horse  chestnut" 
may  refer  ironically  to  the  coarse  nuts,  or  may  arise  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  occasionally  eaten  by  cattle,  or  from  a  horse- 
shoe marking  seen  on  young  twigs.  Hippocastanum  is  from 
hippos,  a  horse,  and  castanea,  a  chestnut.  The  name  buckeye 
refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  brown  nut  through  the  paler 
husk  partly  separated  when  ripe,  suggesting  the  eye  of  the 
common  deer. 

96 


PLATE   20.     HORSE   CHESTNUT  (ALsculus  hippocastanum). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  97 

Ohio  Buckeye,  Fetid  Buckeye.     ^Esculus  glabra  Willd. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye,  Ohio  Buckeye  (local     Stinking  Buckeye  (Ala.,  Ark.), 
and  common  names).  American  Horse  Chestnut  (Pa  ) 

Fetid  Buckeye  (W.  Va.). 

Locality, 

Ohio  River  basin  to  Alabama,  portions  of  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
Indian  Territory. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  forty-five  feet  in  height.  One  to  one  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter.  Yellowish-white  flower,  succeeded  by 
round  prickly  pod  or  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  white,  sapwood  a  little  darker,  close-grained,  fre- 
quent dark  lines  of  decay. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Weak,  light,  soft,  hard  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Artificial  limbs,  woodenware,  paper-pulp,  rarely  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,  ooo. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7000. 
Remarks. 


The  nearly  similar  horse  chestnut  (A.  hippocastanum)  is  forty  to 
fifty  feet  or  more  in  height  and  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter.  The 
light,  weak  wood  is  seldom  used.  The  name  horse  may  be  applied  to 
the  coarse  nuts  ironically,  or  may  refer  to  their  occasional  use  by 
cattle,  or  a  horseshoe  marking  seen  on  young  twigs. 


98  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Buckeye,  Sweet  Buckeye.    -  \  ^fcu!"s  f  andrAa,  Marsh' 

J  (  -fasculus  flava  A  it. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Buckeye  (N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Ala.,          Yellow  Buckeye  (S.  C.,  Ala.). 

Miss.,  La.,  Tex.,  Ky.).  Large  Buckeye,  Big  Buckeye 

Sweet     Buckeye     (W.      Va.,  (Tex.,  Term.). 

Miss.,  Tex.,  Mo.,  Ind.). 

Locality. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia,  westward  inter- 
mittently to  Iowa  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter, 
sometimes  low  shrub.      Large  mahogany-colored  seed. 

Color,  Appearance,  and  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood,  creamy  white,  sapwood  similar,  compact  structure, 
close-grained,  difficult  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those  of  Ohio  Buckeye  (A.  glabra). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
26.64. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 


Remarks. 


PLATE  21.     SWEET  GUM  (Liquidambar  styradjlua). 


. 


GUM. 

(Liquidambar,  Nyssa.) 

This  name  is  applied  to  two  unrelated  American  trees — 
the  Sweet  or  Red  Gum  (Liquidambar  styraciflud),  a  member 
of  the  witch-hazel  family,  and  the  Sour  or  Black  Gum  (Nyssa 
sylvaticd),  which  is  one  of  the  dogwoods. 

The  woods  afforded  by  these  two  trees  are  also  distinct 
from  one  another,  although  both  are  referred  to  by  the  one 
name,  gum.  The  softer  Sweet  Gum  figures  in  carpentry. 
Selected  pieces  so  resemble  black  walnut  as  to  be  cut  into 
veneers  and  made  up  into  furniture.  Sour  Gum  is  harder,  it 
splits  with  difficulty,  and  is  fitted  for  small  work  and  imple- 
ments, such  as  wagon-hubs  and  tool-handles.  Both  woods 
are  close- and  often  cross-grained,  besides  being  strong,  heavy, 
tough,  and  difficult  to  season. 

The  Sweet  Gum  tree  is  characterized  by  rough,  round  balls, 
resembling  those  of  the  sycamore,  by  pointed  star-like  leaves, 
suggesting  those  of  the  sugar 
maple,  and  by  corky  ridges 
on  the  bark  of  younger 
branches.  These  latter 
cause  the  bark  to  resemble 
alligator-skin  and  give  rise 
to  the  name  alligator-wood. 
Liquidambar  refers  to  gums  ^^^^^ 

excreted   by   the    tree    and 
Sometimes  used  in  medicine.       SWEET  GUM  (Liqutdambar  styraciflua). 

The  Sour  Gum  bears  ovoid  bluish-black  sour  drupes,  or  fruit 
containing  single  roughened  seeds.  The  thick  oval  leaves  are 
dark  green  above  and  dull  or  hairy  below.  The  foliage  of 
both  species  becomes  brilliant  in  autumn. 

99 


THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 
^  /  *  \t\Liquidambar  slyraciflna  Linn. 


.  ..   k- 

\f  ;/S\tee{4£ujm  Jtoi&l.a^d  com-  Red  Gum   (Va.,   Ala.,  Miss., 

mon  name).  Tex.,  La.). 

Liquidambar  (R.  I.,  N.  Y.,  Gum,  Gum  Tree  (Va.,  S.  C, 
Del.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  La.,  Tex.,  La.). 

Ohio,  111.).  Alligatorwood,  Blisted  (N.  J.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Illinois  and 
Texas,  Mexico.  Greatest  development  in  basin  of  Mississippi 
River. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  five  feet 
in  diameter.  Tall  straight  trunk,  corky  ridges  frequent  on 
branches.  Star-shaped  leaves  turn  to  brilliant  scarlet  in 
autumn,  round  balls  on  long  stems. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown  suggesting  black  walnut,  sapwood 
nearly  white,  close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  rather  soft,  strong,  stiff,  not  durable  when  exposed,  f 
shrinks  and  warps  badly  in  seasoning,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Veneers,  cabinet-work,  substitute  for  black  walnut,  shingles, 
clapboards,  paving-blocks,  wooden  plates. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
37  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.  ).* 
36. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,700,000  (average  of  118  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,220,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9500  (average  of  118  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
9200. 

Remarks. 

Wood  sometimes  commercially  known  as  satin  walnut  and 
sometimes  as  star-leaved  gum.  Large  specimens  often  have 
hollow  butts. 

*  See  page  6. 

•f-  E.    C.    Woodward,  C.    E.    Division  Engineer  Texas  &  Pacific  Ry.  reports 
"gum"  ties  good  after  5  years'  service.     They  hold  spikes  well. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS*  IOI 


Sour  Gum,  Black  Gum,  Tupelo.     Nyssa 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.)  1>  • 

Sour  Gum,   Black  Gum,  Tu-  Wi?d'?e&Tj'Tree,  Yeflow  Gum 

pelo    (local    and    common  Tree  (Tenn.  ). 

names).  Gum  (Md.). 

Pepperidge  (Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Stinkwood  (W.  Va.). 

N.  Y.,  N.  ].,  S.  C.,  Tenn.,  Tupelo  Gum  (Fla.). 

Mich.,  Ohio,  Ontario). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Michigan  and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty-five  to  one  hundred  feet  high,  one  and  six  inches  to  occa- 
sionally four  feet  in  diameter.  Ovoid,  bluish-black,  sour 
fruit,  with  seed.  Horizontal  branches,  short  spur-like  lateral 
branchlets. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  yellow,  often  nearly  white,  sapwood 
hardly  distinguishable,  fine  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  not  hard,  fibres  interlaced,  therefore  hard  to  work, 
strong,  tough,  checks  unless  carefully  seasoned,  not  durable 
in  contact  with  soil. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Wagon-hubs,  rollers,  ox-yokes,  bowls,  and  woodenware, 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

39- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

1  1,  800. 

Remarks. 

Limited  usefulness  because  difficult  to  work.  Larger  specimen 
in  South.  Large  trees  often  hollow  at  butts  and  sometimes 
higher. 


102  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 


Gum,  Tup'eld  Gam,  Large  Tupelo.     Nyssa  aquatica  Linn. 

Nomen.dature.      (Sudw'brth.) 

'Cotton  •  Gum,  .TapeJo'  Gum,  Tupelo,  Swamp  Tupelo  (N.C., 

Large    Tupelo    (local    and  S.  C.,  La.). 

common  names).  Olivetree,       Wild      Olivetree 

Sour  Gum  (Ark.,  Mo.).  (Miss.,  La.). 

Locality. 

Virginia  and  Kentucky,  southward. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter.     Blue 
oblong  fruit  one  inch  or  more  in  length. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   light  brown,   often  nearly  white,    sapwood   nearly 
the  same. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  soft,  compact,  difficult  to  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Turnery,  woodenware,  roots  used  as  net-floats  instead  of  corks. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9300. 

Remarks. 

Butts  of  large  trees  are  usually  hollow.     Parts  above  are  usually 
sound. 


PLATK  23.     HOLLY,    BOXWOOD,    LIGNUM  VITyE    (//V.v,  J-tuxits,  etc.). 


Box  Tree  (Buxus  sempervirens). 
Molly  Foliage  (Ilex  opaca). 

Lignumvitre  Foliage  (G.  sanctuni). 


Dogwood  Foliage  (Cornus  Jlorida). 
Dogwood  Bark  (Cornus  Jlorida). 
Dogwood  Wood. 

Lignumvitae  Wood- 


HOLLY.  BOXWOOD.  LIGNUM  VITJE. 

(Ilex.)          (Buxus,  Cornus,  etc.]          (Guajacum.) 

The  woods  afforded  by  these  trees  are  all  demanded  in 
small  and  very  perfect  pieces  to  fill  needs  for  which  no  others 
appear  to  be  perfectly  fitted.  The  holly  (Ilex]  grows  in 
Europe  and  America,  where  the  brilliant  evergreen  foliage 
and  red  berries  have  long  been  associated  with  the  Christmas 
season.  The  name  holly  is  probably  a  subversion  of  ' '  Holy. ' '  * 
The  true  boxwood  {Bnxus  sempervirens]  attains  to  some  size  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  remains  a  small  shrub  in  America,  where 
it  is  seldom  if  ever  cut  for  wood,  but  is  placed  as  a  decoration 
along  the  borders  of  walks  and  gardens.  The  wood  called 
' '  boxwood  ' '  in  America  is  not  therefore  derived  from  the 
' '  box. ' '  The  Lignumvitaes  grow  in  Florida,  the  West  Indies, 
and  on  the  northern  coast  of  South  America. 

Holly- wood  is  noted  for  its  fine,  even  grain,  but  chiefly  for 
its  smooth,  ivory-white  color,  fitting  it  for  the  white  of  inlaid 
work,  for  carvings  and  other  decorations  where  white  color  and 
fine  qualities  are  required.  The  principal  European  source  is 
the  Ilex  aquifolium,  while  in  America  it  is  the  Ilex  opaca. 
Boxwood  is,  as  stated,  the  name  applied  to  several  woods,  all 
noted  for  their  fine  compact  structure,  rendering  them  suitable 
for  very  fine  carvings  such  as  are  required  in  wood-engraving. 
The  Eastern  product  as  cut  from  the  true  box  is  so  highly 
prized  as  to  be  sold  by  the  pound.  American  boxwood  is 
chiefly  derived  from  the  Flowering  Dogwood,  the  Mexican 
Persimmon,  and  the  Rose  Bay.  In  Australia  several  species 
of  Eucalyptus  are  said  to  be  used.  Lignumvitae  is  noted  for 
great  strength  and  hardness.  Layers  of  fibres  alternately  cross 
one  another  so  that  the  wood  may  be  said  to  crumble  rather 
than  split.  It  has  no  superior  for  implements  that  must  be 

*  "The  German  name  Christdorn,  the  Danish  name  Christorn,  and  the  Swedish 
name  Christtorn  seem  to  justify  this  conjecture."  (Keeler,  quoting  London.) 

103 


104  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

fine,  true,  and  strong,  such  as  the  sheaves  of  pulleys  and 
handles  of  tools.  The  supply  is  obtained  from  two  species 
(Guajacum  sanctum  and  Guajacum  officinale). 

Holly  may  be  known  by  its  foliage  and  berries.  Box 
(Buxus')  has  small,  smooth,  ovate,  dark,  evergreen  leaves 
joining  the  stem  so  as  to  be  opposite  one  another.  The  Dog- 
wood is  known  by  its  flowers;  the  Lignum-vitae  is  a  low  gnarled 
tree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  105 

Holly,  American  Holly.  Ilex  opaca  Ait. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Holly,  American  Holly  (local         White  Holly  (Va.). 
and  common  names). 

Locality. 

Massachusetts  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Indiana 
and  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Occasionally  fifty  feet  in  height  and  three  feet  in  diameter,  fre- 
quently much  smaller,  particularly  in  North.  Foliage  is  ever- 
green. Bright  red  berries  remain  until  spring. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  cream-white,  darkening  or  spotting  on  exposure. 
Sapwood  similar  or  lighter.  Very  close-grained,  compact 
structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Tough,  moderately  hard  and  heavy,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Inlaid  work,  carvings,  scrollwork,  turner}',  moderately  for  furni- 
ture and  decoration. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,  ooo. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9700. 

Remarks. 

The  wood  resembles  ivory. 


106  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Dogwood,  Flowering  Dogwood.     Cornus  florida  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Dogwood,      Flowering    Dog-  False  Box-dogwood  (Ky. ). 

wood   (local   and  common  New       England       Boxwood 

names).  (Tenn.). 

Boxwood  (Conn.,  R.  I.,  N.Y.,  Cornel,      Flowering      Cornel 

Miss.,    Mich.,    Ky.,    Ind.,  (Tex.,  R.  I.). 
Out). 

Locality. 

New  England  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Minnesota 
and  Texas,  Sierra  Madra  Mountains,  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet  in  height,  one  foot  or  more  in 
diameter.  Often  low  shrub,  large  white  flowers  precede 
foliage,  red  berry  in  fall.  Rough  blackish  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  brown,  changing  to  green  and  red.  Sapwood 
lighter,  close-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  strong,  tough,  hard,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Wood-carving,  engraving,  bearings  of  machinery,  turnery. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

50. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

The  Mexican  or  Black  Persimmon  and  the  Great  Laurel  (Rho- 
dodendron maximum]  afford  substitutes.  Yellowwood  (Schaef- 
feria  frtdescens]  is  also  known  as  boxwood.  The  names 
Dogwood  and  Poison  Dogwood  are  often  applied  to  the 
sumach.  Cornus  signifies  horn  and  refers  to  hardness  of 
wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF   WOODS.  107 

Lignumvitae.  Guajacum  sanctum. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Lignumvitae  (Flat.).  Ironwood  (Fla.), 

Locality. 

Semitropical  Florida,  Bahamas,  San  Domingo,  Cuba,  Puerto 
Rico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  feet  high,  one  foot  in  diameter,  a,  low  gnarled  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  rich  yellow-brown  in  younger  specimens  and  almost 
black  in  older  ones.  Sapwood  light  yellow.  Close-grained, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  heavy  and  exceedingly  hard,  strong,  hard  to  work,  brittle. 

Lubricated  by  water. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Sheaves  of  ship-blocks,  rollers,  pulleys,  tool-handles.  Bearings 
for  journals  rotating  in  water. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,220,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

I  1  ,  1  00. 

Remarks. 

Two  other  species,  Guajacum  officinale  and  Guajacum  arborium, 
afford  similar  woods  not  commercially  distinguished  from 
the  above. 


LAUREL. 

(Magnolia,  Rhododendron,  Arbutus,  etc.] 

The  name  Laurel  applies  locally  or  botanically  to  a  number 
of  American  plants,  several  of  which  attain  to  the  dignity  of 
trees. 

The  Big  Laurel  or  Magnolia  (M.  grandiflora)  is  an  orna- 
mental tree  of  the  highest  rank,  extensively  planted  in  parks 
and  gardens  of  American  cities  as  far  north  as  Washington, 
and  also  grown  in  Europe.  The  wood  is  suitable  for  interior 
finish  and  is  also  used  for  fuel.  The  California  Laurel  (Umbel- 
lularia  californica}  and  the  Madrona  or  Madrona  Laurel 
(Arbutus  menziesii)  are  Pacific  coast  species  of  beautiful 
appearance,  the  strong,  heavy,  hard  woods  of  which  are  of 
•economic  importance.  Professor  Sargent  considers  *  that  the 
former  is  the  most  valuable  interior  or  cabinet  wood  produced 
by  the  forests  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  wood  of  the  Madrona 
has  little  or  no  place  in  construction,  but  its  charcoal  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  The  wood  of  the  Great 
Laurel  or  Rose  Bay  (Rhododendron  maximum}  has  been  used 
,as  boxwood.  The  gnarled  roots  of  the  Mountain  Laurel  or 
calico  bush  (Kalmia  latifolia)  are  used  for  rustic  hanging- 
baskets,  seats,  and  the  like. 

All  of  the  kinds  here  noted  have  evergreen  foliage. 

*  Page  69,  "  Catalogue  Jesup  Collection."  Sargent. 

108 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  109 

California  Laurel,  Mountain  Laurel.     Umbellularia  californica  Null. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

California    Laurel,    Mountain         Myrtle-tree,     Cajeput,     Cali- 

Laurel  (Cal.,  Nev.).  fornia  Olive  (Oreg.). 

California    Bay    Tree,     Spice         Californian  Sassafras. 

Tree  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Oreg.). 
Laurel,  Bay-tree,  Oreodaphne 

(Cal.).    ' 

Locality. 

California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  five  feet  in 
diameter.     Evergreen  foliage,  beautiful  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  rich  brown,   sapwood  lighter  brown.     Close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  receives  beautiful  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  cabinet-work,  cleats,  crosstrees. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

40. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,510,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,400. 

Remarks. 

A  valuable  Pacific  coast  cabinet  wood. 


no  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Madrona,  Madrcma  Laurel.     Arbutus  menziesii  Pursh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Madrona,      Madrona     Laurel  Madrone-tree,      Manzanita 

(Gal.,  Oreg.).  (Oreg.,  Cal.). 

Laurel,  Laurelwood,  Madrone.  Madrove  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  from  British  Columbia  to  southern  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  occasionally  higher.  Two 
to  four  feet  in  diameter.  Straight  well-formed  trunk.  Ever- 
green foliage.  A  shrub  in  the  South. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  reddish,  thin  sapwood  slightly  pink.  Close- 
grained  ;  numerous  and  conspicuous  medullary  rays 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  strong,  checks  badly  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Largely  for  gunpowder,  charcoal,  also  furniture. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,190,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,000. 

Remarks. 

A  beautiful  ornamental  tree. 


PLATE  23.     PERSIMMON,  OSAGE  ORANGE,  CHERRY 
(Diospyros),  (Madura),  (Primus). 


Osage  Orange  Trunk  (M.  aurantiacd).       Wild  Black  Cherry  Trunk  (P.  serotina). 
Cherry  Wood. 

Osage  Orange  Wood. 

Persimmon  Wood. 


PERSIMMON.     OSAGE  ORANGE.     CHERRY. 

(Diospyros.)  (Madura.}  (Prunus.} 

The  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiand)  grows  in  many  of 
the  central  and  southern  United  States  and  affords  a  hard, 
tough  wood,  resembling  fine-grain  hickory,  that  is  used  for 
implements  and  other  small  work.  The  plum-like  fruit  is 
remarkably  astringent  when  green,  but  is  sweet,  rich,  and 
palatable  when  ripe.  The  persimmon  is  a  member  of  the 
ebony  family  (Ebenacece],  and  the  extremely  close-grained 
heartwood  is  almost  black.  The  ebony  of  commerce  is 
derived  from  tropical  species  of  this  genus. 

The  Osage  Orange  or  Bois  D' Arc(Machira  aurantiacd)  is 
found  in  the  Gulf  and  neighboring  States,  and  has  been  culti- 
vated in  the  North.  The  wood  is  unusually  hard  and  strong,  and 
is  of  a  yellow  color,  which,  however,  darkens  writh  age.  It  is  in 
many  ways  a  unique  and  serviceable  product,  widely  utilized 
locally  in  the  South,  but  almost  unknown  in  the  North,  and 
nowhere  sufficiently  appreciated.  The  aborigines  made  bows 
and  arrows  of  it,  whence  the  name  Bois  D' Arc.  The  tree  affords 
a  useless  fruit  somewhat  resembling  the  common  orange  in 
appearance. 

The  widely  distributed  Wild  Cherry  or  Wild  Black  Cherry 
(Prunus  serotind]  supplies  the  cherry  wood  of  commerce. 
This  wood  is  strong,  hard,  fine-grained,  red-colored,  and  one 
of  the  most  popular  decorative  woods  of  the  American  forests. 
Sweet  or  Cherry  Birch  (Betula  lento)  is  often  stained  so  as  to 
imitate  it,  while  it  of  itself  is  stained  so  as  to  resemble 
mahogany.  The  wood  of  the  cultivated  cherry  is  not  used  in 
the  United  States.  The  wild  cherry  bears  purplish-black  fruit 
somewhat  larger  than  peas,  sweetly  bitter  when  ripe.  The 
bark  is  also  bitter.  It  should  be  noted  of  these  woods  that  the 
thin  heart  of  the  persimmon  is  black,  that  of  the  Bois  d'Arc  is 
yellow,  and  that  of  the  cherry  is  red.  Each  receives  a  high 
polish. 

in 


112  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Persimmon.  Diospyros  virginiana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Persimmon    (local    and  com-         Simmon,  Possumwood  (Fla.). 

mon  name).  Plaqueminier  (La.). 

Date  Plum  (N.  J.,  Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Missouri  and 
Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Occasionally  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Soft  plum-like  fruit,  astringent  when  green,  sweet  when  ripe. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark-brown  or  black,  sapwood  light-brown,  often 
with  darker  spots.  Very  thin  heartwood.  Very  close-grained, 
compact  structure.  Medullary  rays  conspicuous.  Resembles 
hickory. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Plane-stocks,  shoe-lasts,  etc.     Prized  for  shuttles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

49- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1 ,  1 1 0,  OOO. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,400. 

Remarks. 

The  astringency  of  unripe  fruit  is  due  to  tannic  acid.  The  dried 
and  roasted  seeds  have  been  used  for  coffee.*  Heartwood  is 
not  greatly  developed  in  trees  under  one  hundred  years  of  age. 

*  U.  S.  Dispensatory. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  113 

/%  n  f  Madura  aurantiaca  Nutt. 

Osage  Orange.         |  Toyylon  pomiferum  Raf^ 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Osage  Orange  (local  and  com-         Hedge,    Hedge-plant,    Osage 

mon  name).  (111.,  la.,  Neb.). 

Bois  D'Arc  (La.,  Tex.,  Mo.).         Mock  Orange  (La.), 
Bodark,  Bodock  (Kans.).  Bow-wood  (Ala.). 

Yellow-wood,     Osage    Apple 

Tree  (Tenn.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Arkansas,    Indian  Territory,   and  Texas.     Cultivated 
elsewhere,  as  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  rarely  beyond  one  and  one-half  feet 
in  diameter.      Fruit  resembles  orange.      Long  thorns. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  bright  orange,  turns  brown  on  exposure.     Sapwood 
light  yellow,  close-grained,  annual  rings  clearly  marked. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  very  strong,  flexible,  durable  in  contact  with  soil. 
Receives  beautiful  polish.      Shrinks  in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fence-posts,  piles,  telegraph  poles,  railway  ties,  paving-blocks, 
occasionally  indoor  decoration. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

48. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

16,000. 

Remarks. 

Indians  used  wood  for  bows,  thus  the  name 
Bois  D'Arc,  corrupted  into  Bow  Dark  or 
Bodark.  A  valuable  wood  not  enough 
appreciated.  Often  planted  as  hedges. 
The  fruit  is  useless. 


OSAGE  ORANGE. 


114  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Wild  Black  Cherry,  Wild  Cherry.     Primus  serotina  Ehrh. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Wild     Black     Cherry,     Wild         Rum  Cherry  (N.   H.,  Mass., 

Cherry  (local  and  common  R.  I.,  Miss.,  Neb.). 

names).  Whiskey  Cherry  (Minn.). 

Black    Cherry   (Me.,    N.   H.,          Choke    Cherry    (Mo.,    Wis., 

Vt.,   R.   L,   N.   Y.,   Miss.,  la.). 

Ky.,     Mich.,    Wis.,     Ind., 

Neb.). 

Locality. 

Eastern  to  Central  United  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  eighty  feet  in  height.     Two  to  three  or  more  feet  in 
diameter.      Bitter  bark,  pea-sized  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  yellow,  fine  straight  grain;, 
compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  strong,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Cabinet-work,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  WTood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

36. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,700. 

Remarks. 

The  bitter  bark  contains  medicinal  properties 
valued  in  bronchitis  and  other  troubles. 
The  fruit,  agreeable  when  ripe,  is  also 
used  in  medicines  and  cordials. 


WILD  BLACK  CHERRY 
{Frunns  serotina). 


PLATE  24.     TEAK   AND   GREENHEART  (Tectona,  Nectandra,  etc.). 


Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiali). 


Teakwood. 
Greenheart. 


TEAK.  GREENHEART. 

(Tectona.}  (Nectandra.) 

There  are  two  Teaks ;  the  principal  one  (  Tectona  grandis\ 
a  native  of  Asia,  has  been  called  the  "Oak"  of  the  Indian 
forests,  the  other  (Oldfieldia  africana}  is  an  African  tree.* 
The  Greenheart  (Nectandra  rodiali}  is  of  the  laurel  family  and 
grows  in  South  America.  The  woods,  although  foreign,  are  of 
such  nature  as  to  have  widely  established  reputations,  and  each 
has  at  some  time  been  used  in  construction. 

Teak  suggests  oak,  save  that  it  is  lighter  and  has  a  more 
uniform  structure.  It  is  very  durable,  and  an  oily  secretion 
repels  insects  and  preserves  iron  fastenings.  During  the 
supremacy  of  wooden  vessels  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best 
ship-building  woods  in  existence.  The  grain  fits  it  for  carv- 
ings, and  it  is  now  known  in  North  America  chiefly  because 
of  this  fact.  Indian  teak  is  the  wood  usually  referred  to. 

Greenheart  was  early  placed  among  the  first  class  of  ship- 
building woods  by  Lloyd's  Register,  and  is  yet  taken  to  Europe 
to  some  extent  for  dock-  and  ship-building  and  for  implements, 
but  is  seldom  found  and  but  little  known  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  strong,  hard,  durable,  and  extremely  heavy,  the  latter 
quality  being  so  pronounced  as  to  limit  its  field  of  usefulness. 

*  It  was  long  supposed  that  African  teak  was  supplied  by  the  species  Swietenia 
senegalensis.  It  is  now  known  that  the  source  is  Oldfieldia  africana,  of  the  family 
Euphorbiacese.  It  is  not  impossible  that  wood  passing  as  teak  may  be  derived 
from  yet  other  species. 

"5 


Ii6,  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Teak.  Tectona  grandis. 

Nomenclature. 

Teak.  Teek. 

Indian  Oak.  Sagwan. 

Locality. 

India,  Burma,  Siam,  Ceylon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Straight  trunk,  large  drooping 
deciduous  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Variable,  brownish-yellow,  straight,  even-grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately  hard,  strong,  easily  worked,  stands  well,  oily, 
fragrant,  resists  termites,  preserves  iron. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Furniture,  ship-building,  timbers,  backing  for  armor-plates. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
50  (Laslett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,338,000  (Lazlett). 
2,100,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
15,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

The  oil  is  thought  to  preserve  iron  and  repel  termites.  Burma, 
Malabar,  Rangoon,  and  other  teaks  take  names  from  districts 
producing  them.  The  distinct  African  teak  (Oldfieldia  afri- 
cana)  affords  wood  sometimes  marketed  as  African  mahog- 
any and  sometimes  as  African  oak.  (Forestry  methods,  see 
"  Burma  Teak  Forests,"  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis,  "Garden  and 
Forest,"  Vol.  IX,  "Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  Vol.  IX,  No.  3, 
P-  J39-) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  1 1? 

Greenheart.  Nectandra  rodiali. 

Nomenclature. 

Greenheart  (local  and  common  name). 

Locality. 

British  Guiana  and  adjacent  portions  of  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  sometimes  seventy  feet  in  height,  two  to  four 
feet  in  diameter.  A  straight  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dark  green  to  chestnut  or  nearly  black,  sapwood 
similar.  Clean,  straight,  compact  structure,  free  from  knots. 
Numerous  pores,  annual  layers  hardly  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Exceptionally  heavy,  strong,  and  durable,  tough,  hard,  elastic, 
receives  high  polish,  breaks  suddenly. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-keels,  frames,  rollers,  turnery,  also  beams,  planks,  and 
piles  (Europe).  In  America  tops  of  fishing-rods  and  very 
occasionally  veneers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
72  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,090,000  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
10,000  (Thurston). 

Remarks. 

Excessive  weight  unfits  it  for  many  purposes.  Placed  in  first 
class  of  ship-building  woods  by  Lloyd's  Register.  Formerly 
supposed  to  repel  teredo.  Generally  exported  through 
Demerara  to  England. 


MAHOGANY. 

(Swietenia,  Khaya,  Soymida,  Cedrela,  etc.} 

There  are  three  principal  mahogany  trees:  the  Central 
American  or  true  mahogany  (Swietenia  maJiogani'},  the  African 
mahogany  (Khaya  senegalensis},  and  the  Indian  mahogany 
(Soymida  febrifngd).  There  are  also  minor  species  called 
mahoganies.*  American  mahogany  was  originally  divided  by 
dealers  into  Spanish  and  Honduras  wood,  the  former  from  the 
then  Spanish-American  possessions.  A  considerable  supply 
now  comes  from  Mexico,  taking  name  from  port  of  shipment; 
as,  Frontera,  Laguna,  Santa  Ana,  Tecolutla,  Minatitlan,  and 
Tonala,  desirability  being  much  in  the  order  named.  The 
African  field  is  the  latest  and  probably  most  important,  very 
large  quantities  of  its  wood  being  distributed  through  English 
markets. 

Mahogany,  placed  among  the  second  class  of  ship-building 
woods  by  Lloyd's  Register,  was  once  used  to  some  extent  in 
place  of  oak  in  naval  architecture,  but  is  now  so  greatly  valued 
for  decoration  as  to  be  employed  for  little  else,  save  occa- 
sionally the  hulls  of  small  pleasure  craft.  The  decorative  value 
is  due  to  a  combination  of  beauty,  working  qualities,  and 
durability.  Beauty  is  influenced  by  both  grain  and  warm  red 
color.  The  latter  is  generally  light,  and  although  it  subse- 
quently darkens,  in  most  cases,  to  a  characteristic  and  rich 
reddish-brown,  is  usually  induced  immediately  by  stains.  The 
grain  is  not  only  beautiful  of  itself,  but  is  such  as  to  receive 
those  stains  and  finishing  processes  thus  demanded.  Different 
localities  produce  woods  varying  in  tint  and  grain.  Individual 

*  Mahogany  and  mountain  mahogany  are  names  applied  in  the  United  States 
to  Rhus  integrifolia,  a  native  of  Lower  California  and  the  coast  islands,  and  to 
the  following  species  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region  (Idaho  to  Arizona): 
Cercocarpus  ledifolius,  Used  for  fuel. 

Cercocarpus  parvifolius,  Used  for  fuel. 

Cercocarpus  breviflorus,  Heavy,  hard,  not  common. 

118 


PLATE  25.      MAHOGANY  (Swtetema  mahagoni). 


Two  Specimens  of  Wood. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  119 

trees  also  differ  in  desirability.  No  two  are  alike.  Beautiful 
grain  effects  are  often  obtained  in  "crotches"  or  junctions 
between  trunk  and  branch,  and  such  pieces  bring  high  prices. 
Mahogany  is  generally  used  as  a  veneer.  Layers  are  glued 
either  to  some  central  piece  or  ' '  core  ' '  or  else  to  one  another. 
The  layers  are  arranged  so  as  to  cross  one  another's  grain, 
and  results  are  usually  thought  to  be  more  desirable  than  those 
obtained  from  solid  wood.  Few  woods  glue  better,  and  few 
shrink  or  distort  less  when  in  place. 

' '  Spanish  Cedar  ' '  (Cedrela  odoratd]  is  a  broadleaf  wood,  and 
not  a  conifer  as  is  usually  supposed.  It  is  nearly  related  to,  and 
usually  found  and  cut  with,  true  mahogany.  Lindley  *  divides 
Cedrelecae  into  two  sub-orders :  Swieteniae,  including  the  true 
mahoganies,  and  Cedrelae,  with  nine  genera  and  twenty-five 
species  distributed  over  tropical  Asia  and  America. 

Prima  vera  or  white  mahogany  belongs  to  Bignoniaceae, 
which  also  includes  the  catalpas. 

*  John  Lindley,  Treasury  of  Botany,  p.  243,  Part  I ;  also  see  Gifford, 
"  Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4,  p.  174  ;  also  Correspondence  Messrs. 
Wm.  E.  Uptegrove  &  Brother,  New  York  City 


120  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Mahogany.  Swielenia  mahogani  Jacq. 

Nomenclature. 

Mahogany  (local  and  common         Honduras    Mahogany    (Hon- 

name).  duras). 

Spanish  Mahogany  (Cuba.  San         Baywood,  Madeira,  Redwood. 

Domingo,  West  Indies). 
Mexican  Mahogany (Frontera, 

Laguna,    Santa  Anna,    and 

other  Mexican  ports). 
Locality. 

Florida  Keys,  Bahamas,  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central  America, 

Peru. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Florida  specimens  forty-five  feet  in  height  and  two  or  more  feet 
in  diameter.  Foreign  trees  larger. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light,  rich  reddish  brown.  Thin  sapwood  yellow.  Smooth, 
fine  uniform  texture,  inconspicuous  rings,  conspicuous  pores, 
sometimes  filled  with  white  substance. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Strong,  brittle,  durable,  holds  glue,  takes  stains  and  high 
polish,  small  distortion  in  seasoning,  stands  well. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-work,  veneers;  formerly  ship-building. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

45- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,510,  ooo. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

14,000. 

Remarks. 

Desirability  varies  with  locality.  Spanish  mahogany  ranks  first, 
and  harder  Mexican  woods  next.  Mahogany  is  usually 
stained.  African  mahogany  is  now  successfully  rivaling  the 
American  product. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  121 

White  Mahogany.     Prima  vera.      Tabeuia  Donnell- Smithii  (Rose). 

Nomenclature. 

White  Mahogany,  Prima  vera  (local  and  common  names). 

Locality. 

Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy-five  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
Tall,  slender,  a  beautiful  tree.  Numerous  golden-yellow 
flowers  precede  the  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Cream-white.      Beautiful,  fine  grain,  resembles  mahogany. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Works  and  stands  well. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cabinet-work,  fine  furniture,  veneers. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Many  twelve-foot  logs  imported  through  San  Francisco  and 
west.  Higher-priced  than  Red  Mahogany.  Named  after 
discoverer.  The  wood  of  the  Butternut  or  White  Walnut  is 
sometimes  sold  as  White  Mahogany. 

See  Botanical  Gazette,  Vol.  XVII,  1892,  p.  418  ;  Contribution  U.   S.  National 
Herbarium,  p.  346,  Vol.  I,  No.  9,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Division  of  Botany. 


122  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar.     Cedrela  odoraia  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Spanish  Cedar,  Mexican  Cedar,  Cuban  Cedar  (local  and  common 
names). 

Locality. 

Mexico,  Cuba,  West  Indies. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet  in  diameter.  Pale- 
yellow  flowers.  Pods  resemble  pecan-nuts.  Tree  suggests 
English  walnut  (/.  regia). 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Brownish  red,  straight,  even,  compact  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  fragrant,  porous,  durable.  Resembles  cedar  woods  derived 
from  coniferous  trees  (page  167);  also  resembles  mahogany. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Cigar-boxes,  boats,  fine  cabinet-work.  May  be  used  in  place 
of  mahogany.  The  figured  Australian  Red  Cedar  (C.  australis] 
is  locally  used  for  furniture,  joinery,  carriages,  ceilings,  door- 
frames, etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Used  for  cigar-boxes,  because  its  porous  structure  assists  cigars 
to  season,  and  its  odor  improves  their  flavor.  The  Cuban 
supply  is  practically  exhausted.  Mexico  is  now  the  chief 
American  source.  Trees  grow  rapidly. 

The  Toon  Cedar  (Cedrela  toona  Roxburgh)  of  the  Orient  is  the  same  as  the 
Red  Cedar  (Cedrela  australis  F.  v.  M.)  of  Australia.  The  Cedar  (Cedrela  odorata 
Blanco}  is  thought  to  be  distinct  Philippine  species. 

"Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  p.  173,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4;  Writings  Dr.  Gifford; 
Correspondence  Win.  E.  Uptegrove  &  Brother,  and  others. 


PLATE  2fi.  EUCALYPTUS 


Blue  Gum  Tree,  (£".  glokulus)  California.     Blue  Gum  Bark  (E.  glolmlus)  California. 

Jarrah  Trunk,  (E.  marginata)  Australia. 
Jarrah  Wood  (E.  marginata}. 
Karri  Wood  (E.  diversicolor). 


EUCALYPTUS. 

(Eucalyptus.} 

These  trees,  locally  known  as  Stringy-barks,  Iron-barks, 
and  Gum-trees,  are  natives  of  Australia  and  the  neighboring 
islands.  Some  of  the  nearly  four  hundred  species  have  been 
widely  transplanted,  although  none  have  thus  far  succeeded  in 
this  country  outside  of  Florida  and  California.*  The  Blue 
Gum  (E.  globulus)  is  the  species  commonly  referred  to  when 
Eucalyptus  is  mentioned  in  North  America. 

The  Eucalypts  are  noted  for  their  great  size,  rapid  growth, 
tough,  durable  wood,  and  alleged  effect  upon  health.  Size  is 
illustrated  by  the  species  Eucalyptus  amygdalina,  specimens  of 
which  have  reached  a  height  of  four  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
and  are  thus  the  tallest,  although  not  the  largest,  trees  known 
to  man.  Growth  is  shown  by  specimens  of  the  Eucalyptus 
gunnii,  which  have  grown  in  excess  of  two  feet  a  month  during 
the  first  year.t  The  working  qualities  of  Jarrah,  Karri,  and 
Tuart  woods  (E.  marginata,  E.  diversicolor,  and  E.  gompho- 
cepJiald)  are  such  as  to  cause  them  to  take  high  rank  in  local 
construction.  The  first  two  have  been  preferred  beyond  all 
other  species  for  paving  the  streets  of  London  and  of  Paris. 
Some  improvement  in  health  is  said  to  have  followed  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Blue  Gum  (Eucalyptus  globulus)  in  malarial 
districts,  such  as  those  around  Rome.  It  is  not  certain  whether 
these  results  are  due  to  the  presence  of  essences  in  the  foliage, 
although  medicinal  properties  are  ascribed  to  them  and  they  are 
used  in  the  preparation  of  listerine  and  similar  compounds,  or 

*  First  introduced  in  1856  ;  1,000,000  specimens  thought  to  be  in  California, 
1874.  A.  Kinney,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  n. 

f  Eucalyptus  globulus  is  said  to  have  grown  in  California  at  the  rate  of  two 
feet  a  month  during  the  first  year. 

Works  of  Baron  von  Mtiller  ;  Report  J.  Ednie-Brown,  Forest  Commissioner, 
Western  Australia  ;  Correspondence  M.  Francis  Chapman,  Esq. ,  London  ;  The 
Forester,  Jan.  1900;  Abbot  Kinney,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  n. 

123 


124  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

whether  they  are  due   to  the  fact  that  the   leaves  evaporate 
unusual  quantities  of  water  drawn  by  the  roots  from  the  soil.* 

The  trees  are  characterized  by  leathery  evergreen  foliage 
of  many  shades,  such  as  blue,  gray,  and  green.  The  leaves  of 
young  and  old  trees  differ  widely  in  some  species.  Those  of 
young  blue  gums  are  bright  blue,  oval,  and  stalkless,  while 
leaves  of  older  trees  have  stems,  are  dark  green  and  sickle- 
shaped.  The  characteristic  odor  is  the  only  point  in  common 
between  the  foliage  of  the  old  and  young  of  this  species. 
There  are,  as  stated,  nearly  four  hundred  species. 

*  The  writer  has  seen  long  rows  of  California  blue  gums  cut  down  because 
they  "dried  the  soil."  The  general  form  of  a  blue  gum  tree  suggests  that  of  large 
black  Locust. 

McClatchie,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  35. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  BROADLEAF  WOODS.  125 

Jarrah.  Eucalyptus  marginata. 

Nomenclature. 

Jarrah  (local  and  common  name). 
Mahogany  Gum  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Western  coast  of  Australia. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet 
in  diameter.  Fifty  or  more  feet  to  lowest  branch.  Dull, 
sombre  appearance.  Branches  concentrated  at  top. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish,  resembles  mahogany,  also  Kauri  wood. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  non-absorbent,  somewhat  oily,  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil,  receives  good  polish.  Characteristic  odor,  wears 
thin  evenly,  not  easily  inflammable.  Said  to  repel  teredo  and 
termite. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Marine  work,  exposed  positions,  ship-building,  bridge  timbers, 
street-paving  (London  and  Paris). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
65  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,080,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
8900  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Chief  timber  tree  of  southwestern  Australia.  Preferred  by 
Australian  ship-builders.  Often  confused  with  Karri. f  Speci- 
men forty  years  old  two  feet  in  diameter.  Miiller  calls  it 
the  least  inflammable  of  woods.  Marginata  refers  to  thick- 
edged  leaves. 

*  Report  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 

f  The  Melbourne  Argus,  December  31,  1892,  states  that  the  woods  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  ashes  of  Jarrah  are  white  and  those  of  Karri 
black.  Specimens  of  Jarrah  wood  seen  by  the  writer  were  dark,  suggesting  black 
walnut,  those  of  Karri  were  red,  resembling  mahogany. 


126  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Karri.  Eucalyptus  diversicolor. 

Nomenclature. 

Karri  (many  localities).  White  Gum  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Australia,  New  Zealand. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  to  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter.  A  straight  graceful  tree,  lower  branches 
often  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  from  ground.  Smooth  yellow 
white  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Reddish  brown,  fibres  interlaced,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  tough  and  elastic,  non-absorbent,  durable,  diffi- 
cult to  work,  wears  evenly,  characteristic  odor. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Construction,  railway  ties,  piles,  marine  work,  pavements 
(London  and  Paris). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
63  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,890,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
8000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Once  named  Eucalyptus  colossea  because  of  great  size.  Rich 
in  essential  oils.  Grows  rapidly,  one  specimen  thirty-five 
years  old,  having  reached  a  height  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  feet.  Distinct  from  Kauri  Pine  (D.  australis)  of  New  Zea- 
land. Diversicolor  refers  to  leaves  the  upper  and  lower  sides 
of  which  differ  in  color. 

*  Report  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— BROADLEAF  WOODS.  127 

Tuart.  Eucalyptus  gomphocephala. 

Nomenclature. 

Tuart     (local    and     common         Tooart  (Australia), 
name).  White  Gum  (Australia). 

Tewart  (Australia). 

Locality. 
Australia. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  six 
feet  in  diameter.  Lower  branches  forty  or  more  feet  from 
ground.  Bright,  cheerful  appearance,  straight  trunk,  gray- 
white  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  compact  appearance,  fibres  interlaced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  hard,  heavy,  strong,  tough,  rigid,  durable,  seasons  well. 
Difficult  to  split  or  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Keels,  buffers,  stern-posts,  frames,  wheel-hubs,  shafts. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
67  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,300,000  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 
9300  (Ednie-Brown).* 

Remarks. 

Highly  prized  locally.  One  of  the  strongest  of  woods.  Gom- 
phocephala refers  to  peculiarities  in  lid  of  calyx-tube. 

*  Report  on  Forests  Western  Australia,  Presented  to  Parliament,  1896. 


128  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Blue  Gum,  Fever  Tree.     Eucalyptus  globulus. 

Nomenclature. 

Blue  Gum  (local  and  common         Fever  Tree  (Australia), 
name).  Balluck  (Australia). 

Locality. 

Native  of  Australia  acclimated  in  southern  California  and  else- 
where throughout  the  world. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  or  more  feet  in  height. 
Three  to  six  feet  in  diameter.  Loose,  shaggy,  exfoliating 
bark.*  Leaves  sometimes  twelve  inches  in  length.  Color 
varies  with  age.  Characteristic  odor. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Straw  color.  Sapwood  lighter.  Indistinct  annual  rings.  Fibres 
interlaced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  durable,  difficult  to  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Rollers,  paving-blocks,  ship-building,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
43  to  69  (Mueller). 
57  to  69  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The  Eucalyptus  of  California.  The  species  planted  in  malarial 
districts.  Sanitary  powers  due  to  evaporation  from  large 
leaves  or  presence  of  essential  oils,  which  are  thought  to  have 
medicinal  qualities.  Grows  very  rapidly. 

*  The  bark  is  variable.  Some  trees  of  nearly  i  foot  diameter  have  smooth  green 
bark  resembling  that  on  young  willow  saplings;  most  others  have  the  shaggy  bark, 
while  from  some  this  has  dropped  away,  exposing  a  smooth  grayish  interior  sug- 
gesting that  of  the  sycamore. 


PLATE  27.     PINE  (Pitms). 


White  PYne ^Folie4*er(7;>.  siroktii}-*  '"' 

White  Pine  Tree  (P.  strobus}. 
(Courtesy  N.  C.  Geol.  Survey.) 

Hard  Pine  Wood  (P.  pahistris). 

Soft  or  Sugar  Pine  Wood  (P.  lambertiana) 


Hard  Pine  Trunk  (/".  pamstris). 
{Photograph  by  EtiwtirdJ.  Davison.) 


NEEDLELEAF   WOODS. 

The  trees  affording  these  woods  cover  large  areas  in  the 
natural  forests  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  They  exist,  but 
to  an  unimportant  extent,  in  the  South.  Cedar,  larch,  and 
cypress  figure  in  ancient  history,  but  woods  generally  were 
not  employed  until  recent  times.*  Pine,  spruce,  hemlock, 
and  other  so-called  soft  woods  are  of  this  group. 

Needle-leaved  woods  are  characterized  by  uniform  fibre- 
conditions,  presence  of  resins,  and  lighter  weights.  The 
vertical  structure  consists  of  simple,  similar,  elongated  tubes 
or  cells,  tapering  and  finally  closing  at  their  ends,  known  as 
tracheids.  These  are  arranged  with  more  or  less  regularity, 
and  woods  are  correspondingly  easy  to  work.  Pith-rays  are 
scarcely  visible,  and  sections  do  not  show  pores.  Cavities 
known  as  resin-ducts,  and  which  are  not  real  vessels  but  rather 
simple  intercellular  spaces,  secrete  resins  so  important  in 
making  these  woods  durable  and  elastic.  Trees  afford  large, 
straight  pieces.  Woods  are  used  in  carpentry  and  heavy  con- 
structions. The  total  requirement  greatly  exceeds  that  for 
hard  woods. 

The  resinous,  usually  evergreen,  leaves  and  the  cones  are 
sufficient  to  identify  these  trees.  Needleleaf,  softwood,  conifer, 
and  evergreen  trees  are  the  same. 

*  See  Oak,  pages  II   et  seq.     The  woods  have  always  been  important  in  the 
United  States. 

129 


PINE. 

(Pinus.} 

These  trees  were  not  regarded  seriously  until  about  the 
latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Their  woods  are  now 
the  principal  ones  in  carpentry  and  construction,  and  are  more 
used  than  any  others.  They  are  to  the  soft  woods  what  the 
oaks  are  to  the  hard  woods,  and  they  stand  at  present  with 
reference  to  all  woods  much  as  iron  does  to  all  metals.  Pine 
is  prized  because  of  a  combination  of  strength,  elasticity,  light 
weight,  working  qualities,  and  availability,  such  as  fits  it  for 
those  constructions  requiring  the  largest  quantities  of  wood. 

The  pines  have  smooth,  straight,  solid  trunks,  usually 
destitute  of  branches  for  many  feet  from  the  ground.  There 
are  needle-shaped,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  evergreen  leaves 
from  one  to  many  inches  in  length,  gathered  in  clusters  of 
two,  three,  or  five,  their  number  and  the  fact  that  they  are 
thus  clustered  being  important  bases  of  classification.  There 
are  also  cones  of  woody  overlapping  scales.  They  reproduce 
with  difficulty,*  and  mature  so  slowly  that  ultimate  survival  of 
modern  conditions  must  probably  be  as  cultivated  trees. 

Thirty-nine  of  the  seventy  known  species  of  pine  are  found 
in  the  United  States.  These  with  their  woods  are  separated 
into  two  groups  known  as  hard  and  soft  pines.  The  Dantzic 
or  Northern  pine  (Pinus  silvestris)  is  the  principal  European 
species. 

*  The  roots  of  most  species  die  with  cutting  of  trees.  There  is  no  power  of 
producing  new  shoots.  (The  pitch  pine  {Pinus  rigida)  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.) 
Seeds  also  have  short-lived  vitality.  Trees  are  easily  raised  from  fresh  seeds. 

130 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  131 


SOFT   PINE. 

Soft  pine  is  soft,  clean,  light,  uniform,  easily  worked,  not 
strong,  free  from  knots  and  resins,  and  obtainable  in  large  and 
perfect  pieces.  The  wood  is  whitish  and  the  yearly  rings  are 
not  pronounced.  The  supply  is  divided,  as  obtained  from  the 
white  pine  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  the  sugar-pine  and  all. 
other  species  on  the  other. 

White  pine  (Pinus  strobus]  grows  in  the  north,  central, 
and  eastern  United  States  and  was  formerly  the  important  tree 
of  North  America.  It  emphasized  the  forest  industries  of 
Maine  and  of  Michigan,  and  methods  connected  with  harvest- 
ing it  have  influenced  logging  practices  in  many  fields.  It  was 
long  the  only  softwood  seriously  considered  by  Northern 
lumbermen.  Thirty  per  cent  of  the  sawn  timber  and  lumber 
used  in  this  country  in  1899  was  drawn  from  this  species.'3*" 
White  pine  is  diminishing  so  rapidly  as  to  be  already  prac- 
tically unobtainable  in  many  places. 

The  Sugar  Pine  (Pinus  lambertiana)  of  the  Western  States  is 
a  tree  growing  at  high  elevations  and  is  so  large  as  to  take  rank 
with  the  redwoods  and  other  of  the  world's  greatest  trees. 
Some  material  is  derived  from  the  Western  white  pine  (Pinus 
flexilis]  and  one  or  more  minor  species.  Sugar  pine  resem- 
bles, but  is  not  as  desirable  as,  white  pine.  The  sweetish 
exudations  from  this  tree  are  sometimes  used  in  medicine. 

*  Roth,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  73. 

"White  Pine  Timber  Supplies."     U.  S.  S.  Doc.  55-1,  Vol.  IV. 


I32  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 


HARD    PINE. 

Hard  pine  differs  from  soft  pine  in  that  it  is  hard,  resinous, 
heavy,  harder  to  work,  and  very  strong.  It  also  is  obtainable 
in  large  pieces.  The  orange-yellow  wood  is  more  or  less 
figured.  The  annual  deposits  are  pronounced  and  are  separated 
into  two  sharply  divided  rings.  The  supply  is  chiefly  derived 
from  the  longleaf,  shortleaf,  Cuban,  and  loblolly  pines  of  the 
South  Atlantic  States. 

The  longleaf  pine  (Pinus  palustris]  is  distinctly  the  most 
important  of  its  group.  The  wood  is  ideal  for  heavy  construc- 
tions. Beams,  docks,  trestles,  and  frames  of  cars  are  formed 
of  it.  The  trees  afford  the  greater  bulk  of  turpentine,  tar,  and 
resin,  or  "naval  stores,"  produced  in  this  country.*  Cuban, 
shortleaf,  and  loblolly  pine  woods  (P.  hcteropliylla,  P. 
£c/iinata,  and  P.  tczda)  are  nearly  similar.  Longleaf  and 
Cuban  pines  are  seldom  separated,  while  shortleaf  and 
loblolly  pines  are  also  mixed.  Longleaf  pine  usually  affords 
finer  structure  and  more  heartwood  than  Cuban  pine. 
Strength  and  weight  averages  of  both  woods  are  in  excess  of 
those  of  shortleaf  and  loblolly  pines.  No  method  of  invariably 
telling  these  four  woods  apart  has  as  yet  been  determined. 
(Roth.)  Any  or  all  of  them  are  practically  liable  to  be 
delivered  in  response  to  a  demand  for  Southern  pine.  Johnson 
considers  shortleaf  pine  as  good  as  longleaf  pine  of  equal 
weight,  and  suggests  environment  as  a  means  of  identification. 

Palustris,  signifying  "swampy,"  is  misleading,  since 
long  leaf  pine  prefers  dry,  sandy  soil  and  tracts  known  as 
"pine  barrens."  Mitts  refers  to  the  soft,  delicate  foliage  of 
shortleaf  pine.  Tceda  signifies  "torch."  The  trees  maybe 
told  by  differences  in  their  leaves  and  cones. 

*  Manufacture    of  tar,   pitch,   etc.     (See   Report  Chief  U.    S.    Div.   Forestry, 
1892,  p.  356  ;  also  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  13.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 


133 


Names. 

Leaves. 

Cones. 

Number  in 
Cluster. 

Length. 

Diameter 

(open;. 

Length. 

3 

2  or  3 
2  or  3 
3 

IO  to  15  in. 
8  to  12    " 
2  to  5      " 
5  to  10   " 

4  to  5  in. 
3  to  5  •' 

I  to  2    " 

2  to  3  " 

6  to  IO  in. 
4  to    7  " 

2                 " 

3  to    4  « 

\Jubd'i  (P  helcropliylla.)  

Shortleal  (P.  ecliinnta)  

Loblolly  (P.  ticda)  

A  confusion  exists  in  the  naming  of  the  pines.  American 
white  pine  is  known  as  yellow  or  Weymouth  pine  in  Europe, 
and  all  American  hard  pines  are  there  often  known  as  pitch 
pines.  The  European,  Dantzic,  or  Northern  pine  has  also 
many  names,  principally  depending  on  port  of  shipment. 
Georgia,  Southern,  Yellow,  Hard,  and  even  Pitch  pine,  are 
interchangeable  names  in  this  country.  The  species  palustris 
has  thirty  local  names. 


134  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

White  Pine.  Pinus  strobus  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

White  Pine   (local  and  com-  Soft  Pine  (Pa.). 

mon  name).  Northern  Pine  (N.  C. ). 

Weymouth       Pine       (Mass.,  Spruce  Pine  (Tenn.). 

S.  C. ).  Pumpkin  Pine. 

Locality. 

North-central  and  northeastern  United  States,  northward  into 
Canada,  southward  to  Illinois,  and  along  the  Alleghanies  into 
Georgia,  intermittently. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height.  Three  to 
six  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Erect  impressive 
form.  Tufts  of  five  soft,  slender,  evergreen  leaves  in  long 
sheath.  Cones  four  to  six  inches  long,  one  inch  thick, 
slightly  curved. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  cream-white,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  straight 
grain.  Compact  structure.  Comparatively  free  from  knots 
and  resin. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  uniform,  seasons  well,  easy  to  work,  nails  without  splitting, 
fairly  durable.  Lightest  and  weakest  of  eastern  United 
States  pines.  Shrinks  less  than  other  pines. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  matches,  spars,  boxes,  numerous  uses. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
24  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

24. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,390,000  (average  of  130  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,210,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900  (average  of  120  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
8900. 

Remarks. 

Formerly  the  chief  lumber  tree  of  the  United  States.  The 
supply  is  rapidly  diminishing. 

*  See  page  6. 

"The  White  Pine."     Spauldmg.  U.  S    Forestry  Bui.  No.  22. 
"White  Pine"    a  Study.     Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot.     (Century  Co.) 
"White  Pine  Timber  Supplies."     U.  S.  Doc.  40  Senate,  55-1,  Vol.  IV. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  135 

White  Pine.  Finns  flexilis  James. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White  Pine  (Cal.,  Nev.,  Utah,  Bull  Pine  (Col.). 

Col.,  N.  M.).  Western  and  Rocky  Mountain 

Pine  (Utah,  Mont.).  White  Pine  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains,  Montana  to  Mexico. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Tufts  of  five  rather  short,  rigid  leaves  in  sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light,  clear  yellow,  turning  red  from  exposure. 
Sapwood  nearly  white.  Close-grained,  compact  structure, 
numerous  and  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Construction. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

960,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8800. 

Remarks. 

This  tree  forms  mountain  forests  of  considerable  extent.  Valued 
locally. 


136  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD, 

Sugar  Pine.  Pinus  lamberliana  Dougl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Sugar  Pine  (local   and   com-  Little  or  Great  Sugar  Pine, 

mon  name).  Gigantic  Pine. 

Big  Pine,  Shade  Pine  (Cal.).  White  Pine, 

Locality. 

Oregon  and  California.  Best  at  high  altitudes  (above  4000 
feet),  central  and  northern  California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  occasionally  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  fifteen 
to  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Cones  ten  to  eighteen 
inches  in  length,  edible  seeds.  Sweetish  exudations.  A 
great  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heart  wood  pinkish  brown,  sap  wood  cream-white.  Coarse, 
straight-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  easily  worked,  resembles  white  pine  (Pinus  strobus), 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  interior  finish,  doors,  blinds,  sashes,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot, 

22. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

I,  120,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8400. 

Remarks. 

Grows  at  as  high  elevations  as  five  thousand  feet  or  more  above 
tide-water.  Forms  extensive  forests  with  Balsam  Fir 
(Abies  concolor). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  137 

White  Pine.  Pinus  monticola  Dougl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White     Pine      (Cal.,      Nev.,  Little  Sugar   Pine,   Soft  Pine 

Oreg.).  (Cal.). 

Mountain  Pine,  Finger  Cone  Western  White  Pine. 

Pine  (Cal.).  Mountain  Weymouth  Pine. 
Locality. 

Montana,  Idaho,  Pacific  States,  and  British  Columbia. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter,  sometimes  larger.  Foliage  resembles,  but  is  denser 
than,  white  pine.  Long  smooth  cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Straight- 
grained,  compact,  suggests  white  pine  (Pinus  strobus). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  WTood. 
Lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

24. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,350,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8600. 
Remarks. 

Found  at  elevations  of  seven  thousand  to  ten  thousand  feet. 
Common  and  locally  used  in  northern  Idaho. 


138  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Georgia  Pine,  Hard  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Longleaf  Pine. 

Pinus  palustris  Mill. 
Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Turpentine  Pine.  Florida  Pine. 

Rosemary  Pine.  Florida  Longleaved  Pine. 

N.  Carolina  Pitch  Pine.  Southern  Pitch  Pine. 

Southern  Pine.  Southern  Hard  Pine. 

Longleaved  Yellow  Pine.  Southern  Heart  Pine. 

Longleaved  Pitch  Pine.  Southern  Yellow  Pine. 

Long  Straw  Pane.  Georgia  Pitch  Pine. 

Pitch  Pine.  Georgia  Longleaved  Pine. 

Fat  Pine.  Georgia  Heart  Pine. 

Heart  Pine.  Georgia  Yellow  Pine. 

Brown  Pine.  Texas  Yellow  Pine. 

Florida  Yellow  Pine.  Texas  Longleaved  Pine. 

Locality. 

South  Atlantic   and   Gulf  States,   Virginia  to  Alabama,   inter- 
mittently. 
Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  ninety  feet  or    more  in    height,    one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.    Tufts  of  three  leaves,  ten  to  fifteen  inches  long,  in 
long  sheath. 
Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  orange,  sapwood  lighter.      Coarse-grained,  compact 

structure,  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Hard,  heavy,  tough,  strong,  elastic,  durable,  resinous. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  constructions,   ship-building,   cars,   docks,   beams,   ties, 

flooring,  house-trim,  many  uses. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38  (U.  S.  Division  of  Forestry).* 

43- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,070,000  (average  of  1230  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

2,  I  IO,OOO. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,600  (average  of  1160  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
16,300. 
Remarks. 

Finer  and  has  less  sapwood  than  Cuban  pine.  One  of  the  best 
woods  for  car-building.  Principal  lumber  tree  of  the  South- 
east. 

*  See  page  6. 

"Southern  Pine."     U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  12.     (Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief.) 
"Timber  Pines  of  Southern  States."     U.    S.   Forestry  Bui.  No.  13.      (Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow,  Chief.) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  139 

Cuban  Pine.  Pinus  heterophylla  Sudw. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Cuban  Pine,  Slash  Pine  (local          Swamp  Pine  (Fla.,  Miss.). 

and  common  names).  Bastard  Pine,   Meadow  Pine, 

Pitch    Pine,     She    Pine,    She  Spruce  Pine. 

Pitch  Pine  (Ga.,  Fla.). 

Locality. 

Coast  region,  South  Carolina  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

Features  of  Tree, 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  pine. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Similar  to  those   of   longleaf  pine,   from   which    it    is   seldom 
separated. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

39  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,370,000  (average  of  410  tests  by  U.  S.  Div.  of  Forestry).* 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

13,600  (average  of  410  tests  by  U.  S.  Div.  of  Forestry).* 

Remarks. 

Resembles  and  is  marked  longleaf  pine  (Pinus  palustris). 

*  See  page  6. 

"Southern  Pine."     U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  12.     (Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief.) 
"Timber  Pines  of  Southern  States."     U.   S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  13.     (Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow,  Chief.) 


140  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Pinus  echinata  Mill. 
Pinus  mitis  Michx. 


f.  T-»-         TT  11        T-»-  (  Pinus  echinata  Mill. 

Shortleaf  Pine,  Yellow  Pine.   J  - 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Common  Yellow  Pine,  Hard         Rosemary  Pine  (N.  C.). 

Pine.  Virginia  Yellow  Pine. 

Spruce     Pine     (Del.,     Miss.,          North  Carolina  Yellow  Pine. 

Ark.).  North  Carolina  Pine. 

Bull  Pine  (Va.).  Carolina  Pine. 

Shortshat  Pine  (Del.).  Slash  Pine. 

Pitch  Pine  (Mo.).  Old  Field  Pine. 

Poor  Pine  (Fla. ). 
Shortleaved       Yellow      Pine 

(N.  C.). 
Locality. 

Connecticut  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to  Kansas  and 

Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  sometimes  ninety  feet  in  height,  two  to  sometimes 
four  feet  in  diameter.  A  large  erect  tree;  small  cones  have 
minute  weak  prickles.  Leaves  usually  in  twos  from  long 
sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  pine. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  usually  hard,  tough,  strong,  durable,  resinous,  lighter 

than  longleaf  pine. 
Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  construction,  similar  to  longleaf  pine. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

30. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,680,000  (average  of  330  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,950,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10, 100  (average  of  330  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
14,700. 

Remarks. 

Affords  considerable  pitch  and  turpentine,  and  is  the  principal 
species  of  Northern  Arkansas,  Kansas,  and  Missouri. 

*  See  page  6. 

"Southern  Pine."     Mohr  U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  12. 

"Timber  Pines  of  Southern   States."     U.   S.    Forestry  Bui.  No.  13.     (Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow,  Chief. ) 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF   WOODS.  141 

Loblolly  Pine.  Pinus  tceda  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Old  Field  Pine.  Sap  Pine. 

Torch  Pine.  Meadow  Pine. 

Rosemary  Pine.  Cornstalk  Pine  (Va.). 

Slash  Pine.  Black  Pine. 

Longshat  Pine.  Foxtail  Pine. 

Longshucks.  Indian  Pine. 

Black  Slash  Pine.  Spruce  Pine. 

Frankincense  Pine.  Bastard  Pine. 

Shortleaf  Pine.  Yellow  Pine. 

Bull  Pine.  Swamp  Pine. 

Virginia  Pine.  Longstraw  Pine. 

Locality. 

Delaware  to  Florida  and  westward  intermittently  to  Texas. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  two  to  sometimes 
four  feet  in  thickness.  Leaves  in  twos  and  threes.  Scales  or 
cones  have  short  straight  spines.  A  large  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  pine. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  pine. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Resembles  longleaf  pine. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

33  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

33- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,050,000  (average  of  660  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

11,300  (average  of  650  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Grows  naturally  on  deforested  land,  whence  the  name  of  Old 
Field  Pine. 

*  See  page  6.  . 

"Southern  Pine."     U.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  12.     (Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief.) 
"Timber  Pines  of  Southern   States."     U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  13.     (Dr.   B.   E_ 
Fernow,  Chief.) 


142  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD, 

Bull  Pine,  Yellow  Pine,  Western  Yellow  Pine. 

Pinus  ponder osa  Laws. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Big  Pine.  Heavy-wooded  Pine. 

Longleaved  Pine.  Western  Pitch  Pine. 

Red  Pine.  Heavy  Pine  (Calif.). 

Pitch  Pine.  Foothills  Yellow  Pine. 

Southern  Yellow  Pine.  Montana  Black  Pine. 
Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains,  westward  intermittently  to  Pacific  Ocean. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  six 
to  sometimes  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  Thick,  deeply  furrowed 
bark.  Leaves  in  tufts  of  threes. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood  is  light  red,   sapwood    nearly  white.      Rather 

coarse  grain,  compact  structure. 
Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  brittle,  not  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  railway  ties,  mine  timbers,  fuel,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,260,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,200. 

Remarks. 

Ponderosa,  signifying  "  heavy,"  refers  to  great  size. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  143 

Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine.     Pinus  resinosa  Ail. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Norway  Pine,  Red  Pine  (local          Hard  Pine  (Wis.). 

and  common  names).  Canadian  Red  Pine  (Eng.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Canada,  northern  United  States  from  Maine  to 
Minnesota,  Pennsylvania. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  ninety  feet  in  height,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Reddish  blossoms  and  bark  on  branchlets.  Leaves  in  twos 
from  long  sheaths.  A  tall,  straight  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thin  heartwood  light  red,  sapwood  yellow  to  white.  Numerous 
pronounced  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  elastic,  not  durable,  resinous. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Piles,  telegraph  poles,  masts,  flooring,  and  wainscoting. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
31  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

3°- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,620,000  (average  of  100  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Division).* 

1,600,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9, 100  (average  of  95  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Sometimes  commercially  handled  with  white  pine.  Unimpor- 
tant as  regards  turpentine  and  resin,  in  spite  of  specific  name, 
which  signifies  resinous.  Long  sheaths  enable  children  to 
make  chains  of  leaves. 

*  See  page  6. 


144  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Pitch  Pine.  Pinus  rigida  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Suchvorth.) 

Pitch  Pine  (local  and  common         Yellow  Pine  (Pa.). 

name).  Black  Pine  (N.  C.). 

Longleaved  Pine,    Longschat          Black  Norway  Pine. 

Pine  (Del.).  Rigid  Pine,  Sap  Pine. 

Hard  Pine  (Mass.). 
Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Georgia,  Kentucky. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  sometimes  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  sometimes 
three  feet  in  diameter.  Rigid  flattened  leaves  in  threes  from 
short  sheaths. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  or  red,  thick  sapwood  yellow  to  nearly 
white.  Coarse  conspicuous  grain,  compact  structure,  very 
resinous. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong,  brittle. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Coarse  lumber,  fuel,  charcoal. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

820,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks. 

Rigida  refers  to  rigid  leaves.  The  name  "  Pitch  Pine  "  is  some- 
times applied  to  all  of  the  Southern  pines.  The  name  is  yet 
more  widely  applied  in  foreign  markets.  Sometimes  called 

•Fat  Pine. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  145 

Northern  Pine,  Scotch  Pine,  Dantzic  Pine.     Pinus  sylvestris  Linn. 

Nomenclature. 

Dantzic    Fir    (from    place   of  Stettin    Fir    (from    place    of 

shipment).  shipment). 

Rigi  Fir  (from  place  of  ship-  Swedish  Fir. 

ment).  Scots  or  Scottish  Fir. 

Memel    Fir    (from    place    of  Northern  Fir. 

shipment).  Redwood,  Yellowwood. 

Deal  (Local). 

Locality. 

Widespread  in  Europe,  as  Scotland,  Germany,  and  Russia;  also 
Asia.  Naturalized  in  United  States. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  five  feet  in  diameter; 
sometimes  larger. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  white  to  yellowish  white,  sapwood  similar. 
Even  straight  grain  (varies  with  locality). 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately  light,  hard,  tough,  and  elastic,  easily  worked  (varies 
with  locality). 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  planks,  beams,  masts,  heavy  timber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
34  (Lazlett  *)  (varies  with  locality). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,680,000  (Lazlett)  (varies  with  locality). 
1,800,000  (Thurston). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7000  (Thurston)  (varies  with  locality). 

Remarks. 

Principal  soft  wood  of  Europe.  Widely  distributed;  local 
peculiarities  once  thought  to  denote  different  species.  Fields 
tributary  to  Dantzic  and  Rigi  afford  best  wood.  Wood 
"  equal  to  Dantzic  Fir"  sometimes  specified. 

*  Table  CLXVII,  p.  418. 


KAURI  PINE. 

(Dammara.) 

This  New  Zealand  tree  affords  one  of  the  best  substitutes  for 
northern  pine.  Although  not  true  pine,  it  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  the  pine  and  other  conifers.  The  light,  strong, 
durable,  elastic  wood  is  obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces  suit- 
able for  masts. 

The  species  is  universally  noted  for  its  resin,  which  possesses 
the  quality  of  uniting  more  perfectly  than  others  with  linseed 
oil.*  Kauri  gum  is  thus  one  of  the  most  valuable  constituents 
of  good  varnish,  t  The  best  gum  occurs  as  a  fossil,  and  is  col- 
lected by  digging  over  areas  known  to  be  fruitful  but  from 
which  trees  have  long  since  disappeared.  The  pieces,  varying 
in  size  from  small  pebbles  to  lumps  as  large  as  eggs,  are 
scraped  and  otherwise  cleansed  by  natives  in  the  fields.^ 

*  It  unites  with  linseed  oil  at  lower  temperatures  than  other  gums  of  its  kind. 

f  Fossil  Kauri  gum  has  sold  for  one  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  dollars 
per  ton. 

J  One  mass  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  has  been  reported  (R.  Ingham 
Clark,  F.R.G.S. :  "Notes  on  Fossil  Resins,"  published  by  C.  Letts  &  Co., 
London). 

Correspondence  Professor  Alvah  H.  Sabin,  New  York  City  ;  Messrs.  Pratt  & 
Lambert,  New  York  City. 

146 


PLATE  28.      KAURI  PINE  (Dammar a  australis). 


R.  Ingham  Clark,  by  coui  tesy  of  Messrs,  Pratt  &  Lambert, 


Fragments  of  Gum  one-quarter  natural  size.      "  Fossil  gum  "  at  right  and  centre. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEE  OLE  LEAF  WOODS.  147 

Kauri  Pine.  Dammar  a  australis. 

Nomenclature. 

Kauri  Pine  (local  and  gen-  Cowdie  Pine  (New  Zealand 
eral).  and  many  localities). 

Locality. 

New  Zealand. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  feet  in  .  height,  three  to  four  feet  in 
diameter,  occasional  specimens  much  larger  Small  leaves 
resembling  those  of  box.  A  tall  handsome  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  straw-colored,  fine,  close,  straight  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Moderately  hard,  light,  elastic,  strong,  seasons  well,  works 
readily,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Carpentry,  masts. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
33  (Lazlett  *)  (varies  with  locality). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
1,810,000  (Lazlett). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The  species  is  widely  known  by  reason  of  its  gum. 

*  Table  CLXXI,  p.  426. 


SPRUCE. 

(Picea.) 

The  spruces  form  forests  in  Europe  and  North  America. 
The  black  spruce  (P.  nigra)  and  the  white  spruce  (P.  alba) 
predominate  in  eastern  United  States,  while  the  white  spruce 
(P.  engelmanni)  is  important  in  the  West.  The  Norway 
spruce,  or  white  fir  (P.  excelsd),  is  the  chief  European  species. 
American  trees  prefer  Northern  ranges  characterized  by  short 
summers  and  long  winters. 

The  soft,  light,  clean  woods  resemble  and  are  probably  the 
best  substitute  for  soft  pine.  They  are  apt  to  warp  and  twist 
in  seasoning  and  so  are  not  good  for  posts  and  trusses.  Spruce 
is  the  principal  wood  in  New  England  for  studding  and  floor- 
joists.  The  product  is  divided  commercially  and  according  to 
appearance,  but  irrespective  of  species,  into  white  and  black 
spruce.  These  terms  depend  sometimes,  at  least,  on  the 
wide  and  narrow  rings  of  the  black  spruce  (P.  nigra}.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  spruce  and  fir  woods  are  often 
confused  with  one  another,  and  that  there  are  trees,  as  the 
Douglas  spruce  and  Kauri  pine  or  spruce,  that  are  called,  but 
are  not,  true  spruces.  European  spruce  is  often  locally  known 
as  white  deal. 

Spruce  trees  have  single,  sharp-pointed,  short  leaves, 
pointing  everywhere,  and  keeled  above  and  below  so  as  to 
appear  four-sided;  the  cones  hang  down.  Spruce  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  pines,  firs,  and  hemlocks  by  the  fact  that 
pine  leaves  are  longer  and  in  clusters,  that  hemlock  leaves  are 
flat,  blunt,  and  two-ranked,  and  that  fir  cones  point  upward. 
The  genus  picea  has  twelve  species,  five  of  which  are  North 
American.  The  resins  of  the  black  and  red  spruce  are  us-ed 
as  confections. 

148 


PLATE  29.     BLACK  SPRUCE  (Puea  mgra). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS. 


149 


The  following  table  sets  forth  the  primary  distinctions  be- 
tween the  spruces  and  the  pines,  firs,  and  hemlocks : 


Names. 

Arrangement  of  Leaves. 

Shape  of  Leaves. 

Cones. 

Pines  (Finns)  

In  tufts  or  clusters. 

Comparatively  long. 

Spruce  (Picea).  .  .  . 

Single,  scattered,  point 
in  all  directions. 

Single,  scattered,  ap- 

Short, sharp  ends, 
keeled    above    and 
below.      Somewhat 
four-sided. 
Short,  blunt  ends,  flat. 

Hang  down,  i  to 
6  inches  long. 

Stand  erect,  2  to 

Hemlock  (Tsuga).. 

pear  somewhat  as  in 
two  ranks. 
Single,  scattered,  ap- 
pear as  in  two  ranks. 

Short,  blunt  ends,  flat. 

4  inches  long. 

Hang  down,  |  to 
I  inch  long. 

15°  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Black  Spruce.  \  Ppicea  n^ra  Link,-.u 

(  Picea  manana  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Spruce  (Vt.),  Yew  Pine,  Spruce         White  Spruce  (W.  Va. ). 

Pine  (W.  Va.).  He  Balsam  (Del.,  N.  C.). 

Double  Spruce  (Me.,  Vt., Minn.).     Water  Spruce  (Me.). 
Blue  Spruce  (Wis.). 
Locality. 

Pennsylvania  to  Minnesota,  Alleghany  Mountains  to  North 
Carolina.  Best  in  Canada. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Forty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Conical  shape  with  straight  trunk.  Dark  foliage.  Cones 
remain  for  several  years,  being  thus  distinct  from  white  spruce. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish,  nearly  white;  sapwood  lighter.  Straight 
grain,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  elastic,  resonant. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  flooring,  carpentry,  ship-building,  piles,  posts,  railway 
ties,  paddles,  oars,  "sounding-boards,"  paper-pulp. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,560,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

i  o,  600. 

Remarks. 

A  substitute  for  soft  pine.     Resin  is  used  as  a  confection. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  black  and  white  spruce  trees.  The 
foliage  of  the  former  is  darker  as  a  whole,  and  there  are  differences  in  shape  and 
persistence  of  cones.  The  names  double  spruce  and  single  spruce  are  without 
evident  foundation.  Woods  exhibit  similar  qualities  and  are  classed  together  by 
lumbermen.  Red  Spruce  (Picea  rubens}  resembles,  and  is  sometimes  considered  a 
variety  of,  black  spruce. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELE4F  WOODS.  151 

wvi;+o  c«»  (  Picea  alba  Link. 

White  bpruce.  \  D .  ,     .    ,  ,.„ 

\  Picea  canadensis  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Single     Spruce     (Me.,     Vt.,  Skunk    Spruce    (Wis.,    New 

Minn.).  Eng.). 

Bog     Spruce,      Cat     Spruce  Spruce,  Double  Spruce  (Vt.). 

(N.  Eng.).  Pine  (Hudson  Bay). 

Locality. 

Northern  United  States,  Canada  to  Labrador  and  Alaska. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in 
diameter,  occasionally  larger.  Compact,  symmetrical,  conical 
shape.  Foliage  lighter  than  black  spruce.  Cones  fall  sooner 
than  those  of  black  spruce.  Whitish  resin. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  yellow,  sapwood  similar.  Straight-grained, 
numerous  prominent  medullary  rays.  Compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong  (similar  to  Black  Spruce). 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  flooring,  carpentry,  etc.  (similar  to  Black  Spruce). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,450,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Notable  as  resident  of  high  latitudes.  Chief  tree  of  arctic 
forests.  Wood,  used  similarly  to  black  spruce,  is  substituted 
for  white  pine. 


152  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

White  Spruce.  Picea  engelmanni  Engelm. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

White    Spruce    (Ore.,    Col.,          White  Pine   (Idaho),    Moun- 

Utah,  Idaho).  tain  Spruce  (Mont.). 

Balsam,  Engelmann's  Spruce 

(Utah). 

Locality. 

Rocky  Mountain  region,  Montana  to  Mexico,  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  British  Columbia  (high  elevations). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Frequently  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  feet  in  height  and  some- 
times higher,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes  low 
shrub. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  pale  reddish  yellow,  sapwood  similar.  Close,  straight 
grain,  compact  structure,  conspicuous  medullary  rays. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  charcoal,  fuel.  Bark  rich  in  tannin,  sometimes  used 
for  tanning. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

21. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  140,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

8100. 

Remarks. 

Notable  as  resident  of  high  altitudes,  extensive  forests  occurring 
at  eight  to  ten  thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  A  valuable 
tree  of  the  central  and  southern  Rocky  Mountain  region. 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  153 

Sitka  Spruce.          Picea  silchensis  Traulv.  and  Mayer. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Sitka  Spruce  (local  and  com-         Menzies  Spruce. 

mon  name).  Western  Spruce. 

Tideland  Spruce  (Cal.,  Oreg. ,          Great  Tideland  Spruce. 

Wash.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Alaska  to  central  California.  Extends 
inland  about  fifty  miles;  prefers  low  elevations. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  feet  or  more 
in  diameter.  Flat-pointed  pyramidal  needles,  oval  cylindrical 
cones,  thick  scaly  reddish-brown  bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  reddish  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse- 
grained, satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Construction,  interior  finish,  fencing,  boat-building,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  WTood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

2626. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

A  giant  among  spruces.     Forms  an  extensive  coast -belt  forest. 


DOUGLAS  SPRUCE. 

(Pseudotsuga.) 

The  Douglas  or  Red  Pine,  Spruce,  or  Fir,  of  the  Pacific  coast 
is  neither  true  pine,  spruce,  nor  fir,  but  a  sort  of  bastard  hemlock. 
The  name  ' '  pseudotsuga  ' '  is  from  pseudo,  or  false,  and  tsuga, 
or  hemlock.  The  trees  are  among  the  greatest  known.  The 
wood  resembles  larch  or  hard  pine  in  properties,  appearance, 
and  applications.  Trees  have  been  successfully  planted  in  the 
Adirondacks.  The  species  was  earlier  classed  as  Pinus 
taxifolia  and  as  Abies  taxifolia. 

154 


PLATE  30.     DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  (Psendotsuga  taxi/olio). 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  155 

T-V       1       o  T\       1      -!"•      ( Pseudotsuga  taxi  folia  Lam. 

Douglas  Spruce,  Douglas  Fir.  j  Pseudo^ga  D/uglasii  Carr> 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Oregon    Pine    (Cal.,    Wash.,  Douglas    Tree,    Cork -barked 

Oreg. ).  Douglas  Spruce. 

Red  Fir,  Yellow  Fir  (Oreg.,  Spruce,  Fir  (Mont.). 

Wash.,  Idaho, Utah,  Mont.,  Red  Pine  (Utah,  Idaho,  Col.). 

Col.).  Puget  Sound  Pine  (Wash.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast  region,  Mexico  to  British  Columbia.  Best  in 
western  Oregon  and  Washington. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  and  seventy-five  to.  sometimes  three  hundred  feet 
in  height,  three  to  five  and  sometimes  ten  feet  in  diameter. 
Older  bark  rough-gray,  often  looking  as  though  braided. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  red  to  yellow,  sapwood  nearly  white. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Variable,  usually  hard,  strong,  difficult  to  work,  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Heavy  construction,  dimension  timbers,  railway  ties,  piles,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

36  (average  of  20  specimens  by  Soule).f 

32- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i, 680,000  (average  of  41  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 

1,862,000  (average  of  21  specimens  by  Soule).f 

1,824,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7,900  (average  of  41  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).* 
9,334  (average  of  21  specimens  by  Soule).f 

12,500. 

Remarks. 

Used  similarly  to  hard  pine.  Lumbermen  divide  into  red  and 
yellow  woods,  the  former  dark  and  coarse,  the  latter  fine, 
lighter,  and  more  desirable.  These  distinctions  probably  due 
to  age.  One  of  the  world's  greatest  trees. 

*  See  page  6. 

f  Professor  Frank  Soule,  University  of  California.     Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E., 
p.  552,  Vol.  XXIX. 


FIR. 


(Abies.) 

Several  of  the  fir-trees  of  the  western  United  States  attain 
to  very  great  size.  The  silver  fir  (Abies  grandis)  and  the 
white  fir  (Abies  concolor)  supply  much  wood  in  the  section  in 
which  they  grow.  The  balsam  fir  (Abies  balsamed]  of  the 
Eastern  States  is  of  some  commercial  importance. 

Fir  wood  resembles  spruce  in  appearance  and  in  structural 
qualities.  It  may  be  told  from  spruce  as  well  as  from  pine 

and  larch  by  the  fact  that  fir 
has  no  resin-ducts.  The  bal- 
sam fir  is  distinguishable  by 
clear  liquid  resin  which  ap- 
pears in  blisters  in  the  bark. 
The  coarse,  weak  wood  is 
cleaner  than  the  bark  would 
indicate.  Spruce  and  fir  woods 
are  often  confused  in  the 
United  States,  while  pine, 
spruce,  and  fir  are  similarly 
confounded  in  Europe. 

Fir  trees   have  flat,  scat- 


BALSAM  FIR  (Abies  balsamea). 


tered,  evergreen  leaves,  and  cones  that  stand  erect  (see  foot- 
note under  spruce). 

156 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  l$7 

Balsam  Fir,  Common  Balsam  Fir.     Abies  bahamea  Mill. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Balsam  (Vt.,  N.  H.,  N.  Y.).  Blister   Pine,    Fir    Pine    (W. 

Fir  Tree  (Vt.).  Va.). 

Balm  of  Gilead  (Del.).  Single    Spruce,     Silver    Pine 

Canada  Balsam  (N.  C.).  (Hudson  Bay). 

Balm  of  Gilead  Fir  (N.   Y., 
Pa.). 

Locality. 

Minnesota  to  Virginia,  northward  intermittently  into  Canada. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter. 
Sometimes  low  shrub.  Blisters  in  smooth  bark  contain  thick 
balsam.  Erect  cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  white  to  brownish,  sapwood  lighter.  Coarse-grained, 
compact  structure,  satiny. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  not  durable  or  strong,  resinous,  easily  split. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Occasionally  used  as  inferior  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

i,  160,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7300. 

Remarks. 

Scattered  throughout  Northern  pineries.  Cut  when  of  sufficient 
size  and  sold  with  pine  or  spruce.  Cultivated  in  gardens. 
Exudations  known  as  Canada  Balsam  used  in  medicine.  The 
poplar  (P.  balsamifera)  is  also  called  Balm  of  Gilead. 


158  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Great  Silver  Fir,  White  Fir.     Abies  grandis  Lindl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Silver  Fir  (Mont.,  Idaho).  Yellow  Fir  (Mont.,  Idaho). 

Oregon    White   Fir,    Western         Lowland  Fir. 
White  Fir  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Vancouver  region,  northwestern  United  States.  Best  in  west 
Washington  and  Oiegon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  hundred  to  sometimes  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  two 
to  five  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  deep  green  above,  silvery 
below,  usually  curved.  A  handsome  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  lighter.  Coarse-grained,  corn-- 
pact structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  soft,  not  strong. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,  interior  finish,  packing-cases,  cooperage. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in. Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot, 

22. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,360,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7000. 

Remarks. 

Forms  important  part  of  local  mountain  forests  and  furnishes 
much  lumber  locally. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  159 

White  Fir,  Balsam  Fir.     Abies  concolor  Parry. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth). 

Silver  Fir,  Balsam  (Cal.).  White  Balsam  (Utah). 

California  White  Fir  (Cal.).  Balsam  Tree  (Idaho). 

Black     Gum,     Bastard    Pine  Colorado  White  Fir,  Concolor 

(Utah).  White  Fir. 
Locality. 

Rocky  Mountains  and  coast  ranges,  high  elevations. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  three  to  five 
feet  in  diameter.  Pale  green  or  silvery  foliage.  Bark  blisters 
filled  with  clear  pitch. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown  to  nearly  white,  sapwood  same  or 
darker.  Coarse-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  without  odor. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Butter-tubs,  packing-boxes,  lumber. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

22. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,290,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture, 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Not  always  distinguished  from  the  species  Abies  grandis. 


160  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Red  Fir.  Abies  magnified  Murr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

California  Red  Fir,  California         Magnificent  Fir,    Golden  Fir 
Red-bark  Fir  (Cal.).  (Cal.). 

Shasta  Fir  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

California,  vicinity  of  Mount  Shasta. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  six  to  ten 
feet  in  diameter.     Large  erect  cones.     Beautiful  form. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   reddish,    sapwood  distinguishable.      Rather  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable  when  exposed,  liable  to  injury 
in  seasoning. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Construction,  sills,  lumber,  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

940,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

9900. 

Remarks. 

Magnifica  or  magnificent  refers  to  appearance  and  size  of  tree. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  161 

Red  Fir,  Noble  Fir.  Abies  nobilis  Lindl. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Noble  Silver  Fir,  Noble  Red         Bigtree,     Feather-cone,     Red 

Fir.  Fir  (Cal.). 

Larch  (Oreg.). 

Locality. 

Northwestern  United  States.     Cultivated  in  East. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  six  to  nine  feet  in  diameter. 
Leaves  curved.     Large,  beautiful  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   reddish    brown,    sapwood   darker.     Rather  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  hard,  strong,  elastic. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Fitted  for  house-trimmings. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,800,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

22,200. 

Remarks. 

Grows  at  high  elevations  (3000  and  4000  feet).     With  other  fir 
forms  extensive  forests.     Sold  as  larch. 

Peters,  "Forestry  and  Irrigation,"  Vol.  VIII,  No.  9  (Sept.  1902),  pp.  362,  366. 


HEMLOCK. 

(Tsuga.) 

The  hemlocks  are  distributed  over  northern  United  States 
from  Maine  to  Michigan,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  They  generally  mingle  with  broad-leaved  and 
other  needle-leaved  species,  but  occasionally  form  pure  forests 
by  themselves. 

The  wood  is  coarse,  often  crossed-grained,  perishable, 
brittle,  liable  to  wind-shakes,  hard  to  work,  and  apt  to  warp 
and  splinter.  It  holds  nails  firmly  and  is  used  for  coarse 
lumber,  dimension  pieces,  paper-pulp,  and  latterly  for  cheap 
finish.  It  should  not  be  relied  upon  to  receive  shocks.  The 
bark  is  used  in  tanning. 

Hemlock  trees  may  be  known  by  their  blunt,  flat,  evergreen 
leaves,  appearing  two-ranked  and  whitened  beneath  (see  foot- 
note under  Spruce).  Red  inner  bark. 

162 


PLATE  31.     HEMLOCK  (Tsuga). 


Hemlock  Tree  (Tsuga  canadensis).  Western  Hemlock  Tree  ( T.  heterophvlla) 

Hemlock  Foliage  (Tsuga  canadensis),  •'    (6500  feet  above  sea-level.) 

Hemlock  Wood  (Tsuga  canadensis). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELE/1F  WOODS.  163 

Hemlock.  Tsuga  canadensis. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Hemlock  (local  and  common  N.  Y.,  Pa.,  N.  J.,  W.  Va., 

name).  N.  C.,  S.  C.). 

Spruce  (Pa.,  W.  Va.).  Spruce  Pine   (Pa.,  Del.,  Va., 

Hemlock  Spruce  (Vt.,  R.  I.,  N.  C.,  Ga.). 

Locality. 

Eastern  and  central  Canada,  southward  to  North  Carolina  and 
Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  or  more  feet  in  height,  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Short  leaves,  green  above  and  white  beneath. 
Straight  trunk,  beautiful  appearance. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish  brown,  sapwood  distinguishable.  Coarse, 
pronounced,  usually  crooked  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong  or  durable,  brittle,  difficult  to  work, 
retains  nails  firmly,  splintery. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Coarse  lumber,  joists,  rafters,  plank  walks,  laths,  railway  ties. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

26. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,270,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,400. 

Remarks. 

Canadensis  refers  to  Canada,  the  locality  where  tree  excels. 

The  Southern    or  Carolina   Hemlock    (T.    caroliniana)   resembles    Hemlock. 

The  Western  Hemlock  ( T.   heterophylla,   Alaska  to  California)  attains  height  of 

180  feet,   diameter  of  9  feet,  and  is   said   to    afford    heavier   and  better   wood. 

This  tree  is  known  by  the  following  names  (Sudworth): 

Western    Hemlock,     Hemlock    Spruce     Prince  Albert's   Fir,  Western  Hemlock 
(Cal.).  Fir,      California     Hemlock     Spruce 

Hemlock  (Oreg.,  Idaho,  Wash.).  (England). 

Alaska    Pine    (Northwestern    Lumber- 
man). 

"The  Western  Hemlock."     Allen,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bureau  Bulletin  No.  33. 


LARCH.     TAMARACK. 

(Larix.) 

Larch  was  well  known  in  the  older  time,  and  was  prized  in 
Europe  and  the  Orient.  The  two  principal  American  species 
are  also  called  tamarack  and  hackmatack.  The  Eastern  larch 
or  tamarack  (L.  americand]  prefers  peculiar  low,  wet  areas 
known  as  tamarack  swamps.  The  Western  tree  (L.  occiden- 
talis)  resembles  the  European  species  and  prefers  dry  places. 

Larch  wood  has  always  been  regarded  as  very  durable.  It 
is  noted  by  Pliny  and  other  ancient  authors.*  Vitruvius 
mentions  a  bridge  that,  having  burned,  was  replaced  by  one 
of  larch,  because  that  wood  would  not  burn  as  readily.t  The 
foundation-piles  of  Venice  are  said  to  be  of  larch  4  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  identities  of  ancient  woods  are  not 
always  beyond  question.  American  larch  resembles,  if  it  does 
not  equal,  true  foreign  wood.  The  trees  are  tall  and  straight, 
but  so  slender  as  to  be  seldom  cut  into  lumber,  almost  the 
entire  supply  being  demanded  for  posts,  ties,  and  poles.  The 
exceedingly  durable  wood  resembles  spruce  in  structure,  and 
hard  pine  in  weight  and  appearance. 

Larch  trees  are  marked  by  the  fact  that  their  foliage  is 
deciduous.  The  little  leaves,  gathered  in  tufts  or  bundles,  are 
of  a  bright  pea-green  when  fresh  in  the  springtime.  The 
appearance  of  tamarack  trees  when  divested  of  foliage  in  the 
winter  is  very  gloomy. 

*  Pliny,  XVI,  43-49  and  XVI,  30. 

j-  Vitruvius,  II,  9. 

\  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  310. 

164 


1'l.ATK  32.     LARCH  (t.anx). 


l«ircli  Trees  in  Winter. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES  -NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  165 

,.,  i     T       t.         (  Larix  americana  Michx. 

Tamarack,  Larch.      j  LaHx  ^.^  (Du  RQ{} 


Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack,  Larch,  American  Black  Larch,  Red  Larch 
Larch  (local  and  common  (Minn.,  Mich.). 

names).  Juniper  (Me.,  Canada). 

Hackmatack      (Me.,     N.      H., 
Mass.,  R.I.,  Del.,  111.,  Mich.) 
Locality. 

Northern  United  States  and  southern  Canada,  east  from  Great 
Lakes. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  ninety  feet  high,  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Short  pea-green  deciduous  leaves  in  tufts.  A  slender  tree, 
winter  aspect  gloomy. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse  conspic- 
uous grain,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  pronounced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  durable,  resembles  spruce. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,  fence-posts,  sills,  ship  timbers,  telegraph  poles, 
flagstaffs,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

38. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,790,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,800. 

Remarks. 

Practically  all  (tall  thin)  trunks  required  for  railway  ties,  posts, 
masts,  etc.  Seldom  cut  into  lumber  in  consequence.  Grows 
in  light  swamps  often  extensive  and  known  as  tamarack 
swamp.  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engineers,  Vol.  XXIX, 
page  157.) 


1 66  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Tamarack  Larch.  Larix  occidentalis. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth.) 

Tamarack,    Larch   (local  and  Western  Larch,  Great  Western 

common  names).  Larch,  Red  American  Larch. 

Hackmatack  (Idaho,  Wash.).  Western  Tamarack  (Cal.). 

Locality. 

Washington  and  Oregon,  intermittently  to  Montana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high,  two  and  one- 
half  to  four  feet  in  diameter.     A  large  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood   light   red,    thin   sapwood  lighter.      Coarse-grained, 
compact  structure,  annual  rings  pronounced. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Hard,  heavy,  strong,  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  railway  ties,  fuel,  limited  quantity  of  lumber,  similar  to 
L.  americana. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

46. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,300,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

17,400. 

Remarks. 

A  valuable  tree  of  the  Columbian  basin.      Differs  from  L.  ameri- 
cana in  that  it  grows  on  dry  ground,  often  at  high  elevations. 


PLATE  33.     CEDAR  (Cedrus,  Thuya,  etc.). 


;  Q 


Cedar  of  Lebanon  (Cedrus  libani}. 

Red  Cedar  Bark  (Juniperus  virginiana}. 

White  Cedar  Wood  ( Thuya  occidentalis}. 


Foliage  of  White  Cedar  (71  occidentalis). 
Foliage  of  Red  Cedar  (J.  virginiana}. 
Tree  of  Red  Cedar  (J.  virginiana.}. 


CEDAR. 

(Cedrus,  Thuya,  Cbamcecyparis,  Libocedr  us,  Juniper  us.} 

Cedar  was  a  name  first  applied  to  the  true  or  Lebanon 
cedars  (Cedrus}  of  the  Eastern  continent,  but  later  to  certain 
Arborvitaes  (Thuya),  Junipers  (Juniperus},  and  Cypresses 
(CJiamcecyparis],  and  other  trees  (see  "Spanish  Cedar,"  page 
122)  from  which  durable,  fine-grained,  more  or  less  fragrant 
woods,  known  as  cedar,  are  obtained.  Cedar  was  highly 
prized  by  the  ancients,  who  employed  it  in  costly  constructions, 
such  as  the  temples  of  Solomon  and  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.*t 
Woods  known  as  cedar  are  divided  into  so-called  Red  and 
White  Cedars. 

Red  Cedar  is  very  fine-grained,  soft,  light,  durable,  fra- 
grant, and  of  a  pinkish-red  color.  Much  wood  is  derived  from 
the  Red  Cedars,  Juniperus  virginiana,  Juniperus  scopulorum, 
and  Juniperus.  barbadensis,  of  the  Eastern,  Western,  and 
Southern  States  respectively.  Although  seen  in  construction, 
red  cedar  is  chiefly  used  in  chests,  closets,  lead-pencils,  and 
cigar-boxes.  One  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  trees 
(125,000)  \  are  annually  required  for  lead-pencils  alone.  The 
waste  is  often  converted  into  shavings  and  used  instead  of 
camphor  to  protect  woolens.  The  demand  is  greater  than  the 
supply.  Trees  are  easily  grown  on  almost  any  soil.  Trees 
and  wood  are  subject  to  fungus  diseases  which  apparently  cease 
after  trees  have  been  felled;  the  wood  is  then  durable. § 

White  Cedar  is  best  defined  as  all  cedar  that  is  not  "red 

*  It  is  probable  that  the  ancients  also  used  the  word  Cedar  somewhat  generally. 

f  Pliny,  16,  213  and  16,  216. 

%  Notes  on  Red  Cedar,  Mohr.  Bui.  31,  U.  S.  Division  Forestry  (Gifford 
Pinchot,  Forester). 

§  Several  of  the  fungoid  parasites  cause  swellings  known  as  "cedar  apples." 
The  branches  usually  die.  Professor  von  Schrenk  recognizes  two  diseases  of  the 
wood,  white  rot  (Pofyporns  Juniperus  Schrenk)  and  red  rot  (Polyporus  carneus\ 
(Bulletin  No.  21,  Division  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agriculture.) 

167 


1 68  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

cedar,"  and  is  obtained  from  several  valuable  trees. *  The 
arborvitaes  ( T.  occidentalis}  vary  in  size  from  large  bushes  used 
in  hedging  and  ornamentation  to  small-sized  trees  gathered 
for  wood.  They  are  most  vigorous  on  cold,  wet  areas  known 
as  cedar  swamps. t  The  giant  arborvitae  (T.  gigantea),  noted 
for  its  great  girth,  and  the  yellow  and  Lawson  Cypresses,  are 
important  Pacific  coast  species.  The  incense  cedar,  while 
much  subject  to  fungus  trouble,  is  also  prized.^:  White  cedar 
wood  is  durable,  plentiful,  and  employed  in  exposed  positions 
as  ties  and  shingles. 

Arborvitaes  (Thuya)  have  very  small  overlapping  leaves 
that  form  flat  rods  or  fan-like  sprays.  The  cones  are  oblong, 
less 'than  one-half  inch  in  length,  and  all  of  their  six  or  eight 
scales  separate  or  open  when  ripe.  The  cypresses  (CJiam&cy- 
paris)  exhibit  similar  foliage,  but  their  tiny  cones  are  simple, 
roughened,  close,  or  solid  globules.  The  Junipers  (Junipcrus) 
often,  but  not  always,  bear  bluish-black  berries  powdered  with 
a  whitish-blue  bloom.  The  true  cedars  (Cedrus)  differ  from 
the  others  in  that  they  have  simple  needle  leaves,  an  inch, 
more  or  less,  in  length,  together  with  cones  erect  and  several 
inches  in  length.  The  Deodar  or  cedar  of  India  is  of  this 
genus.  The  principal  American  red  and  white  cedars  are  as 
follows : 

Red  Cedar.  White  Cedar. 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virginiana).  Arborvitse  (Thuya  ocddentalis). 
Red  Cedar  (Junipems  scopuloruni).  Canoe  Cedar  (Thuya  gigantea). 
Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  barbadensis).  White  Cedar  (Chamcccyparis  thy  aides). 

Port    Orford    Cedar    (Chamacyparis  la-w- 

soniana). 

Yellow  Cedar  (Chamcccyparis  nutkaensis). 
Incense  Cedar  (Libodecrus  decurrens). 
Spanish  Cedar.     (See  page  99.) 

*  Heartwood  often  light  grayish  brown. 

f  Trunks  of  considerable  size  often  grow  surrounding,  but  apart  from,  such 
swamps.  Vigorous  lower  branches  impede  progress  through  swamps,  which  are 
often  as  thick  as  to  resemble  immense  cultivated  hedges.  (Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E., 
VolXXIX,  p.  157.) 

\  Von  Schrenk,  Contribution  No.  14,  Shaw  School  of  Botany,  St.  Louis. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES—  NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  169 

Red  Cedar.  Junipertis  virginiana  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.  ) 

Red  Cedar  (local  and  common  Savin  (Mass.,   R.   I.,  N.   Y., 

name).  Pa.,  Minn.). 

Cedar    (Conn.,    Pa.,     N.    J.,  Juniper,  Red  Juniper,  Juniper 

S.  C.,  Ky.,  111.,  la.,  Ohio).  Bush  (local). 
Pencil  Cedar,  Cendre  (La.). 

Locality. 

Atlantic  coast,  Canada  to  Florida,  westward  intermittently  to 
Mississippi  River  in  the  North,  and  Colorado  River  in  the 
South. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
Sometimes  low  shrubs.  Dark  -green  foliage,  loose  ragged  outer 
bark. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dull  red,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  even 
grain,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  easily  distinguishable. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  weak,  brittle,  easily  worked,  durable,  fragrant. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ties,  sills,  posts,  interior  finish,  pencil-cases,  chests,  cigar-boxes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

950,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,500. 

Remarks. 

Fragrance  of  wood  utilized  as  insecticide.  The  Western  Red 
Cedar  (J.  scopulorum)  and  the  Southern  Red  Cedar  (_/.  bar- 
badensis)  afford  similar  wood. 


17°  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Juniper.  Juniperus  occidentalis  Hook. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Juniper    (Oreg.,    Cal.,    Col.,  ern    Cedar    (Idaho,     Col., 

Utah,  Nev.,  Mont.,  Idaho,  Mont.). 

N.  M. ).  Western  Red  Cedar,  Western 

Cedar,    Yellow  Cedar,   West-  Juniper  (local). 

Locality. 

California,  Washington,  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
often  smaller.      Long  straight  trunk  in  West. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  reddish-brown,  sapwood  nearly  white.      Very  close- 
grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  durable,  receives  high  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Fencing,  railway  ties,  posts,  and  fuel. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

35- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Rarely  found  below  an  altitude  of  6000  feet.      Fruit  said  to  be 
eaten  by  Indians. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  171 

White  Cedar,  Arborvitae.     Thuya  occidentalis  Linn. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Wnite  Cedar,  Arborvitae  (local         Atlantic  Red  Cedar  (Cal.). 

and  common  names).  Vitse  (Del.). 

Cedar  (Me.,  Vt.,  N.  Y.). 

Locality. 

Northern  States  eastward  from  Manitoba  and  Michigan.  North- 
ward, also  occasionally  southward,  as  in  mountain  region  of 
North  Carolina  and  eastern  Tennessee. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  sixty  feet  high,  one  to  three  feet  or  more  in  diameter, 
often  smaller.  Bruised  leaves  emit  characteristic  pungent 
odor,  rapidly  tapering  trunk. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  light  brown,  darkening  with  exposure,  thin  sapwood, 
nearly  white.  Even,  rather  fine  grain,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  light,  weak,  brittle,  durable,  inflammable.  Permits  spikes 
to  work  loose. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Railway  ties,  telegraph  poles,  posts,  fencing,  shingles,  and 
boats. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

19. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

750,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7200. 

Remarks. 

Trunks  so  shaped  as  to  be  seldom  sawn  for  lumber.  Often  used 
for  telegraph  or  other  poles,  or  else  thin  upper  ends  are  used 
for  posts,  and  lower  section  flattened  into  ties. 


I72  .      THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 


Canoe  Cedar,  Arborvit®,  Giant  Arborvitse.    \  T^'a  plicat«  Do":  „ 

(  Inuya  giganiea  A  utt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Canoe  Cedar,  Giant  Arborvitae         Cedar,  Giant  Cedar,  Western 

(local  and  common  names).  Cedar  (Oreg.,  Cal.  ). 

Red  Cedar,  Giant  Red  Cedar,          Shinglewood  (Idaho). 
Pacific  Red  Cedar  (Wash., 
Oreg.,  Cal.,  Idaho). 

Locality. 

Coast  region,  California  to  Alaska,  Idaho  to  Montana. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  two  to  eleven 
feet  in  diameter.  Four-sided  leaves  closely  overlapping  in 
sprays. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  dull  reddish  brown,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Coarse-grained,  compact  structure,  annual  layers  distinct. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Soft,  weak,  light,  brittle,  easily  worked,  very  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Shingles,  fencing,  cooperage,  interior  finish,  canoes  (coast 
Indians). 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

10,600. 

Remarks. 

Large  trees  are  often  hollow  at  the  bottom. 


EXOGENOUS  SER1ES-NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  i?3 

White  Cedar.  Chamcecyparis  thyoides  L. 

Nomenclature.     (Sud  worth.) 

White  Cedar  (local  and  com-  Post  Cedar, Swamp  Cedar  (Del.), 
mon  name).  Juniper  (Ala.,  N.  C.,  Va.). 

Locality. 

Maine  to  Florida,  Gulf  coast  to  Mississippi,  best  in  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  three  to  four  feet  in  diameter. 
Shaggy  rugged  bark.  A  graceful  tree. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  pinkish  to  darker  brown,  sapwood  lighter.  Close- 
grained,  compact  structure,  conspicuous  layers. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Very  light,  soft,  not  strong,  extremely  durable  in  exposed  posi- 
tions, fragrant,  easily  worked. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Boats,  railway  ties,  fencing,  poles,  posts,  shingles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
23  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 

20. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

910,000  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 

570,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

6310  (average  of  87  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.). 
6400. 

Remarks. 

Grows  chiefly  in  swamps.  "  White  cedar  posts  "  last  many  years. 
Thyoides  is  from  Thuya  meaning  arborvitae  and  eidos,  the 
Greek  for  ' '  resemblance. ' ' 


174  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD, 

Port  Orford  Cedar,  Lawson  Cypress. 

Chamtecyparis  lawsomana  Murr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

White  Cedar,   Oregon    Cedar         Ginger  Pine  (Cal.). 
(Oreg.,  Cal.). 

Locality. 

Pacific  coast,  California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  to  sometimes  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  four  to 
twelve  (?)  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  overlapping  in  sprays, 
very  small  cones  one-fourth  inch  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood    yellowish   white,    sapwood    similar.       Very  clc 
grained. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  hard,  strong,  durable,  easily  worked,  fragrant,  resinous. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Lumber,    flooring,    interior   finish,   ties,    posts,   matches,    i 

building. 
Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

28. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,730,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

12,600. 

Remarks. 

Resin  employed  as  insecticide. 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  i?5 

„  ~\    (  Chamcecyparis  nootkatensis 

Yellow  Cedar,  Yellow  Cypress,  /   \      t.rJ&  ^arh 

—  •  j  i          /^  f       i  \     J ^  '** y }        Jr     *-f'*f 

3    (  Chamcecyparis  nutkaensis  Spach. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Nootka  Cypress,  Nootka  Alaska  Cypress,  Alaska 
Sound  Cypress  (local).  Ground  Cypress  (local). 

Locality. 

Oregon  to  Alaska. 

Features  of  Tree. 

One  hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  three  to  five  feet  or  more 
in  diameter.  Sharp-pointed,  overlapping  leaves,  small  glob- 
ular cones. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  clear  light  yellow,  thin  sapwood  nearly  white. 
Close-grained,  compact  structure. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  brittle,  hard,  durable  in  contact  with  soil, 
easily  worked,  receives  high  polish,  fragrant. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Ship-building,  furniture,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

29. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,460,000. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

II,OCO. 

Remarks. 

Valuable  Alaska  timber  tree.  Commercially  not  distinguished 
from  Pacific  Arborvitae. 


176  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Incense  Cedar,  White  Cedar.     Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth.) 

Post    Cedar,    California    Post  California      White      Cedar 

Cedar  (local).  (local). 

Bastard    Cedar,    Red    Cedar,  Juniper  (Nevada). 

Locality. 

California  and  Oregon. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Ninety  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  height,  occa- 
sionally higher,  three  to  six  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  lighter.  Close-grained,  compact 
structure.  Heartwood  often  pitted.  Fragrant. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  brittle,  soft,  durable. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Flumes,  shingles,  interior  finish. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

25. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,200,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

960,000. 

Remarks. 

Subject  to  attack  by  fungus,  causing  the  large  oval  pits  in  the 
heartwood.  Disease  ceases  upon  the  felling  of  trees,  (von 
Schrenk  Contribution  No.  14  Shaw  School  Botany,  St. 
Louis.) 


PLATE  34.     CYPRESS  (Cupressus.  Taxodium). 


Monterey  Cypress  (Cupressus  macrocarpa~\. 
(Courtesy  Doubled  ay,  Ptige  &°.Co.) 

Cypress  (Taxodium  distichum) 
{Photograph  by  Edward  J.  Dnvisoti.) 


Peggy  "  Cypress  Wood. 


CYPRESS. 

(Cupressus  and  Taxodium.] 

The  name  cypress  has  been  chiefly  applied  to  trees  of  the  gen- 
era Chama^cyparis,  Cupressus,  and  Taxodium.  Most  species  of 
the  genus  Chamaecyparis  are  now  called  cedars  (see  page  167). 
The  Cupressus,  while  true  cypresses  and  important  in  Europe, 
have  no  significance  in  America.  The  single  species  of  the 
genus  Taxodium  is  not  a  cypress,  but  supplies  the  "  cypress  " 
wood  of  American  commerce.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  confine 
the  name  cypress  to  the  true  cypress  (Cuprcssiis}  and  to  the 
commercial  cypress  (Taxodium). 

The  true  cypress  (Cupressus]  was  once  important  in  the 
East,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  have  given  the  gopher  wood 
of  which  the  Ark  was  built.*  Pliny  mentions  cypress  doors 
good  after  four  hundred  years,  and  a  statue  good  after  six 
hundred  years.  Herodotus  and  other  ancient  authors  f  speak 
of  it.  Authorities  in  the  middle  ages  thought  that  it  would 
never  decay.  The  cypress  gates  of  the  early  St.  Peter's, 
removed  after  one  thousand  years  of  service,  were  found  to-be 
in  perfect  condition.^  Cypress  was  much  prized  for  mummy- 
cases.  Living  trees  long  figured  as  funeral  emblems,  and  are 
yet  planted  over  graves  in  Italy  and  Turkey. §  The  common 
or  evergreen  cypress  is  the  chief  European  species.  The  eight 
or  nine  American  representatives  are  of  little  note  save  as  they 
are  sometimes  used  for  hedges  and  ornamentation.  The 
Monterey  and  Gowan  cypresses  (Cupressus  macrocarpa  and 
Cupressus  goveniana)  are  thus  employed.  There  are  small 
evergreen  scale-like  leaves. 

*Funk  &  Wagnalls'  Standard  Dictionary,  quoting  Horace  Smith,  "Gayeties 
and  Gravities,"  Chapter  VII,  p.  57. 

f  Pliny  16,  214  and  16,  215;  Herodotus  4,  16;  Virgil,  Georgics,  2,  443. 

J  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  B.  6,  p.  745. 

§  Brockhaus,  Kon.versations-Lexikon,  B.  4,  p.  654. 

177 


i78 


THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 


The  American  or  Bald  Cypress  (JFaxodium  distichuni]  is  a 
tree  of  considerable  importance.  It  grows  in  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  on  submerged  lands  or  in  deep 
swamps  where  unusual  logging  methods  are  necessitated.  The 
seasoned  wood  resembles  white  cedar  in  that  it  is  soft,  light, 
and  very  durable.  It  has  been  called  by  many  names.  Pieces 
$.  ^  were  once  called  black  or  white  cypress 

.v ;         £  according  as  they  sank  or  floated.      All 

/  -     I-'-'-  dark  pieces  are  now  called  black  cypress. 

The  tinted  woods  of  some  localities  are 
called  red  or  yellow  cypress.  The  name 
bald  cypress  was  caused  by  the  leafless 
appearance  of  the  trees  in  winter.  The 
living  trees  are  subject  to  a  peculiar  fung- 
ous disease,  causing  numerous  cavities 
in  the  wood.  These  so  resemble  per- 
forations made  by  small  pegs  that  the 
wood  is  termed  ' '  peggy. ' '  The  trouble 
ceases  as  the  trees  are  cut,  and  the  wood 
is  then  as  durable  as  that  from  perfect 
trees.  About  one  third  of  the  standing  supply  is  thus 
affected.*  The  roots  frequently  project  upward  above  the 
surface  in  what  are  known  as  cypress  knees.  The  single 
species  of  this  genus  may  easily  be  recognized  by  its  deciduous 
foliage ;  the  little  leaves  are  separated  and  are  not  in  tufts  as 
with  the  tamaracks. 


BALD  CYPRESS  ( Taxodium 
distichuni). 


*  LI.  S.  Forestry  Circular  No.  19  (Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLE  LEAF  WOODS.  179 

Cypress,  Bald  Cypress.     Taxodium  distichum  Rich. 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

White  Cypress  (N.  C.,  S.  C.,          Swamp  Cypress  (La.). 

Fla.,  Miss.).  Deciduous  Cypress  (Del.,  111., 

Black  Cypress  (N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Tex.). 

Ala.,  Tex.).  Southern  Cypress  (Ala.). 

Red  Cypress  (Ga.,  Miss.,  La., 

Tex.). 

Locality. 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  Maryland  through  Florida  to 
Texas,  Mississippi  Valley  from  southern  Illinois  to  the  Gulf. 
Occasional  in  North,  as  New  York.  Forms  forests  in  swamps 
and  barrens.* 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height,  four  to  ten 
feet  in  diameter.  Knees  on  roots  often  hollow  in  old  age. 
Flat  deciduous  leaves. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Heartwood  brownish,  sapwood  nearly  white.  Close,  straight 
grain.  Frequently  pitted  by  disease. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  not  strong,  durable.     Green  wood  often  very  heavy. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Carpentry,  construction,  cooperage,  railway  ties. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
29  (U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 
28. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

1,290,000  (average  of  655  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 

1,460,000. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

7900  (average  of  655  tests  by  U.  S.  Forestry  Div.).f 
9600. 

Remarks. 

Wood  commercially  divided  into  "  white  "  and  "  black  "  cypress 
because  of  differences  in  age  and  environment.  Fungus  dis- 
ease pits  much  wood,  but  stops  with  felling  of  trees.  | 

*See  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XXIX,  page  157. 
\  See  page  6. 

\  Von  Schrenk,  Contribution  No.  14,  Shaw  School  Botany,  St.  Louis;  also  U.  S. 
Forestry  Circular  No.  19.  » 


REDWOOD. 

(Sequoia.) 

These  trees  grow  only  in  California.  There  are  two 
species:  the  common  redwood  (S.  sempervirens],  noted  for  its 
lumber,  and  the  big  or  mammoth  tree  (S.  washingtoniana),  so 
remarkable  for  its  great  size.  Geological  evidence  indicates 
that  the  genus  was  once  represented  by  many  species  on  both 
hemispheres,  but  that  all  disappeared  during  the  glacial  period 
save  the  two  here  noted. 

The  common  redwood  is  a  large  and  perfect  tree  and 
supplies  a  wood  suggesting  good  red  cedar.  This  soft,  light, 
clean,  reddish-brown,  durable  wood  works  and  stands  well,  is 
not  easily  inflamed,  and  is  obtainable  in  large-sized  pieces  for 
use  in  large  constructions.  Coffins  and  shingles  are  made  of 
it,  also  large  quantities  of  wooden  water-pipe  employed  for 
irrigation  purposes.  The  average  wood  is  seen  in  cheaper 
forms  of  indoor  finish,  while  occasional  pieces,  in  which  the 
grain  is  distorted,  are  classed  as  -curly  redwood  and  used  for 
costlier  decorations. 

Big  or  Mammoth  trees  have  been  measured  up  to  three 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  height  and  thirty-five  feet  in 
diameter  (Sargent).  They  are  thus  the  largest  of  American 
trees  and  the  most  massive,  although  not  the  tallest,  of  all 
trees.  Specimens  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter  have  been 
estimated  as  thirty-six  hundred  years  old,  and  it  is  thought 
that  under  favorable  conditions  trees  can  survive  for  five 
thousand  years,  or  even  longer.  The  oldest  trees  are  sound 
throughout.  The  almost  incombustible  bark  is  nearly  two 
feet  in  thickness;  the -wood  is  brittle,  but  otherwise  resembles 
ordinary  redwood.  It  should  be  noted  that  large  exceptional 
trees  are  all  known,  and  that  most  of  them  have  names  such 
as  the  "Pride  of  the  Forest,"  the  "Grizzly  Giant,"  and  the 
"  U.  S.  Grant."  These,  with  younger  trees,  are  grouped  in 

1 80 


PLATE  35.     REDWOOD  (Sequoia). 


Redwood  ton-age  (Sequoia 
semperrirens). 


Giant  Redwood  Tree  (S.  -was  fungi  oniana).    (Courtesy  Doubleday,  Page  &>  Co.) 

"Curly"  Redwood  Wood  (dissection). 


EXOGENOUS  SERIES— NEEDLELEAF  WOODS.  181 

the  Mariposa,    Calavaras,   and  other  groves.     Many  sawmills 
are  unfortunately  engaged  on  the  trees  of  this  species. 

Redwood  trees  may  be  known  by  their  size,  locality,  and 
fine,  dull,  evergreen  foliage.  The  name  Sequoia  is  that  of  an 
Indian  chief. 

References  :     "  The  Big  Trees  of  California,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Division  Bulletin 
No.  28.    Also  Mr.  Jas.  Horsburgh,  Jr.,  Southern  Pacific  Railway. 


1 82  THE  PRINCIPAL   SPECIES   OF  WOOD. 

Redwood.  Sequoia  sempervirens  Endl. 

Nomenclature.     (Sudworth. ) 

Redwood  (local  and  common  Sequoia,  California  Redwood, 
name).  Coast  Redwood  (local). 

Locality. 

Central  and  North  Pacific  coast  region. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  sometimes  higher, 
six  to  eight  and  sometimes  twenty  feet  in  diameter.  Straight, 
symmetrical  trunk.  Low  branches  rare. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Thick  heartwood  red,  changing  to  reddish  brown  when  seasoned; 
Thin  sapwood  nearly  white.  Coarse,  straight  grain,  compact 
structure,  very  thick  bark. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  not  strong,  soft,  very  durable,  not  resinous,  easily 
worked.  Does  not  burn  easily,  receives  polish. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Timber,  shingles,  flumes,  fence-posts,  coffins,  railway  ties, 
water-pipes,  interior  decoration.  Bark  made  into  souvenirs. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
26  (census  figure,  see  page  6). 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

790,000  (average  of  8  Humboldt  specimens),  f 
1,140,000  (average  of  7  Humboldt  specimens),  f 
960,000  (census  figure,  see  page  6). 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

4920  (average  of  9  Humboldt  specimens). f 
7138  (average  of  7  Mendocino  specimens). f 
8400  (census  figure,  see  page  6). 

Remarks. 

Pacific  coast  chief  construction  wood.  Curled  or  distorted  grain 
adds  value  for  cabinet  purposes. 


The  Big  or  Mammoth  Tree  or  Giant  Redwood  (S.  washing- 
loniana  Sudworth  and  6".  gigantea)  is  the  largest  tree  known.  The 
wood  resembling  that  of  S.  sempervirens  is  used  locally,  see  U.  S. 
Forestry  Bui.  No.  28. 

\  Professor  Frank   Soule,  Trans.  Am.  Inst.    M.  E.,  California  Meeting,  1899. 
There  are  several  trees  of  this  species  near  New  York  City. 


PLATE  36.  ENDOGENOUS  STRUCTURE  IN  WOOD. 


A  section  through  a  Palm  Tree. 


A  cross-section  of  Palm  wood.      (Natural  size.) 


ENDOGENOUS  TREES. 

(Monocotyledons.} 

Endogenous  trees  are  those  that  increase  from  within. 
Their  elemental  parts  are  similar  to  those  of  exogenous  trees 
but  the  arrangement  of  such  parts  differs  in  that  the  newer 
fibres  of  the  Endogen  intermingle  with  the  old,  pass  through 
a  pith-like  tissue,  and  cause  cross-surfaces  to  appear  as  dotted, 
whereas  the  new  material  of  the  Exogen  is  deposited  altogether 
and  upon  the  outside  of  the  old,  their  sections  exhibiting  rings 
or  layers.  The  Palms,  Yuccas,  Cornstalks,  and  Bamboos  are 
of  the  endogens.  Bark  is  unusual  on  trees  of  the  series. 

Endogenous  woods  are  hardest  and  most  compact  at  cir- 
cumferences. The  stems  of  palm  trees  are  solid,  but  those  of 
some  of  the  grasses,  particularly  those  that  grow  quickly,  are 
hollow.*  The  tube  or  canal,  when  existing,  is  due  to  sluggish- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  central  pith,  which,  developing  more 
slowly  than  the  outer  tissues,  finally  ruptures  and  disappears 
at  the  center.  There  are  also  more  or  less  permanent  joints 
or  knots,  t  such  as  are  made  familiar  by  the  canes  and  bam- 
boos. The  stems  of  Endogenous  plants  are  seldom  cut  up 
into  lumber,  but  are  used  in  segments,  or  else  entire,  as  for 
troughs  or  piles.  \  The  use  of  Palm  wood  must  be  more  or  less 

*  The  Bamboo,  which  is  a  grass,  is  hollow,  while  the  cornstalk,  which  is  also 
a  grass,  is  not. 

f  The  knots  of  endogens  correspond  to  the  nodes  of  exogens.  Spaces  between 
the  nodes,  known  as  internodes,  mark  the  annual  lengthening.  Knots  are  places 
whence  leaves  have  emerged. 

\  Palm  in  marine  work  appears  to  repel  the  teredoe.  This  is  probably  because 
of  the  porous  character  of  the  wood.  See  "Marine  Wood  Borers,"  Trans.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XL,  pages  195  and  204. 

183 


1 84  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

limited  to  the  neighborhoods  in  which  such  trees  flourish,  but 
it  is  probable  that  the  Bamboo  can  be  much  more  generally 
employed. 

The  Endogens  include  numerous  families  and  many  thou- 
sand species.*  The  grasses,  including  wheat,  rye,  and  Indian 
corn  at  the  North  and  sugar-cane  and  bamboo  at  the  South, 
belong  to  this  group.  Most  Endogens  are  herbs ;  compara- 
tively few  furnish  material  for  structural  purposes.  The  Palms, 
including  the  palmetto,  rattans,  cane  palms,  and  others,  the 
Yucca,  including  the  Joshua  tree,  Spanish  bayonet,  and  others, 
and  the  Bamboos,  representatives  of  the  grasses,  are  thus  use- 
ful. Endogens  are  also  known  as  Monocotyledons. 

*Bastin  ("College  Botany,"  p.  379)  divides  into  about  fifty  natural  orders  dis- 
tributed among  seven  divisions.  Warming  ("Systematic  Botany,"  pp.  277,  278) 
divides  into  seven  families  corresponding  with  Bastin's  seven  divisions.  A.  Gray 
divides  into  twenty-one  orders  or  families.  Coulter  ("Plants,"  p.  237)  divides 
into  forty  families,  including  twenty  thousand  species. 


PLATE  37.      PALM  (Palmacece) 


Cabbage  Palmetto.  Washington  Palm  (untrimmed).  Washington  Palm 

(Courtesy  N.  C.  Geological  Survey.)       (Messrs.  Doubleday,  Page  &>  Co.).  (trimmed). 

(Los Angeles  Chamber  Commerce.) 


PALM. 

PALMACE/E. 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important  orders  of 
plants  known  to  man.  The  one  thousand*  or  more  known 
species  are  distributed  over  the  tropical  and  semitropical 
regions  of  the  entire  world.  Only  a  few  species,  including  the 
palmettos  of  the  Gulf  States  and  the  fan  palms  of  Calfornia, 
are  native  in  the  United  States. 

Palms  have  tall,  columnar  trunks  without  branches,  but 
with  crowns  of  large  leaves  at  their  summits.  Their  forms 
and  proportions  are  often  magnificent.  The  wood  is  soft, 
light,  more  or  less  porous,  difficult  to  work,  and  not  strong. 
The  shapes  of  trunks  sometimes  cause  them  to  be  locally 
prized  for  piles,  while  the  porous  qualities  of  the  wood  are 
such  as  to  repel  teredo  t  There  are  many  by-products,  as 
fruit,  nuts,  oil,  etc.  The  rattan  or  cane  palms  of  India  and 
the  Malayan  Islands  sometimes  grow  to  a  rieight  of  two 
hundred  feet  and  are  imported  into  Europe  and  America  for 
chair-bottoms  and  the  like. 

SudworthJ  enumerates  the  following  as  attaining  to  the 
dignity  of  trees  in  the  United  States : 

Cabbage  Palmetto  (Sabal palmetto}.  Sargent  Palm  (Pseudophoenix  sargentii). 

Silvertop  Palmetto  ( Thrinax  microcarpa}.  Fanleaf  Palm  ( Washingtonia  filifera). 

Silktop  Palmetto  ( Thrinax  parviflora).  Royal  Palm  (Oredoya  regia). 
Mexican  palmetto  (Sabal  mexicana). 

*  Coulter,  "Plants,"  p.  241. 

f  "Marine  Wood   Borers,"  Snow  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  195 
;md  204. 

\  "Check  List,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  17. 

A.  L.  Wallace,  "Palm  Trees  of  Amazon  and  their  Uses,"  London,  1853. 

185 


1 86  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD. 

Cabbage  Palmetto.     Sabal palmetto  Walt. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Cabbage   Palmetto,    Palmetto         Cabbage  Tree  (Miss.,  Fla.). 
(N.  C.,  S.  C.).  Tree  Palmetto  (La.). 

Locality. 

Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast,  United  States  (intermittently). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Medium  size,  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height,  one  to  two  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light-brown  tint.     Characteristic  coarse  fibre  arrangement. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  difficult  to  work;  durable  in  marine  work;  repels 
teredo. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Piles,  wharf  work,  etc. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

27. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 
Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Scrubbing-brush  "bristles"  are  made  in  considerale  quantities 
in  Florida  from  the  sheath  of  young  leaves.  The  inner  part 
of  young  plants  is  edible,  ft  is  said  (N.  Y.  Evening  Post, 
April  20,  1901)  that  paper  is  being  manufactured  from  the 
leaves  of  the  Palmetto. 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES.  187 

Washington  Palm.      j  Washingtonia  filifera  Wendl. 
Fanleaf  Palm.  \  Neowashingtonia  filamenlosa  Wendl, 

Nomenclature.      (Sudworth. ) 

Fanleaf  Palm,  Washington  California  Fan  Palm,  Arizona 
Palm,  Desert  Palm  (Cal.).  Palm,  Wild  Date  (Cal.). 

Locality. 
California. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Thirty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  one  and  one-half  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  Fan-shaped  leaves  rising  yet  farther  in  tuft  from 
summit ;  edible  fruit. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Light  greenish  yellow  to  dark  red,  conspicuous  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood.- 

Soft,  light,  shrinks  in  seasoning,  difficult  to  work. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 
Ornamental  purposes. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

32. 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

The  largest  of  the  United  States  Palms.  Much  used  for  land- 
scape effects  in  California. 


YUCCA. 

(Yucca.} 

The  eighteen  species  constituting  this  genus  are  all  Ameri- 
can. Twelve  of  them  are  found  in  the  southern  and  western 
United  States,  and  eight  of  these  are  mentioned  by  Sudworth  * 
as  arborescent.  Several  of  the  Yuccas  are  cultivated  because 
of  their  beautiful  lily-like  flowers.  The  Tree  Yucca  or  Joshua- 
tree  affords  wood. 

This  last  named  species  produces  a  short  stout  trunk, 
peculiar  in  that  it  is  covered  by  thick  bark.  The  soft,  spongy 
wood  is  sometimes  sawn  into  lumber,  made  into  souvenirs  and 
lately  into  artificial  limbs.  An  attempt  to  manufacture  it  into 
paper-pulp  t  is  said  to  have  failed  because  of  high  cost  made 
necessary  by  the  remote  position  of  the  industry.  Hough 
notes  |  that  trees  are  sometimes  attacked  by  borers  that  im- 
pregnate the  walls  of  their  tunnels  with  hardening  antiseptic 
solutions,  causing  such  parts  to  remain  after  the  disappearance 
of  the  others.  And  that  these  parts  are  described  as  "petrified 
wood,"  and  are  prized  for  fuel  since  they  burn  with  "little 
smoke  and  great  heat. 

The  eight  species  noted  by  Sudworth  are  as  follows: 

Yucca  arborescens  (Joshua  tree).  Yucca  aloifolia  ( Aloe-leaf  Yucca V 

Yucca  treculeana  (Spanish  Bayonet).  Yucca  macrocarpa  (Broadfruit  Yucca). 

Yucca  gloriosa  (Spanish  Dagger).  Yucca  brevifolia  (Schott  Yucca). 

Yucca  mohavensis  (Mohave  Yucca).  Yucca  constricta. 

*  "Check  List,"  U.  S.  Forestry  Bui.  No.  17. 

f  South  of  Mohave  Desert  in  California  about  twenty  years  ago. 

\  American  Woods,  Part  VII,  p.  57. 

188 


PLATE  38.      YUCCA  (  Yucca  arborescens*). 


courtesy  of  Messrs.  Doubleday,  1'age  &°  Co.     Photograph  by  Conamay. 


Wcxxl  of  Yucca. 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES.  189 

Joshua-tree,  Yucca.         \  ^ucca  arborescent  Terr. 
\  1  uc ca  brevifolia  Lngelm. 

Nomenclature.      (Sud  worth.) 

Joshua-tree,     The    Joshua,  Yucca  Cactus  (Cal.). 

Yucca,  Yucca  Tree  (Utah, 
Ariz.,  N.  M.,  Cal.). 

Locality. 

Central  and  lower  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Features  of  Tree. 

Twenty-five  to  forty  feet  in  height,   six    inches  to  two  feet  in 
diameter. 
Thick  outer  cover  or  bark.* 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 
Light  brown  to  white,  porous  grain. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 

Light,  soft,  spongy,  flexible  in  thin  sheets. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Paper-pulp,   souvenirs,    boxes,   book  covers,   and    other   small 
articles. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 

23- 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

Modulus  of  Rupture. 

Remarks. 

Bark  is  unusual  in  the  case  of  endogenous  trees.     Arborescens 
refers  to  fact  that  it  is  a  tree. 

*  See  paragraph  Bark,  Endogenous  Trees,  page  55. 


BAMBOO. 


The  bamboos  are  giant  members  of  a  group  (grasses  *),  the 
other  individuals  of  which,  while  widely  distributed,  valued, 
and  very  numerous,  are  for  the  most  part  insignificant  as  to 
bulk,  height,  and  structural  characteristics.  The  canes  and 
bamboos  are  exceptions  in  that  they  form  what  may  well  be 
called  forests,  and  produce  woods  used  in  construction.  The 
Bamboos  (Bainbusce),  including  about  twenty  genera  and  two 
hundred  species,  t  are  distributed  unevenly  over  the  tropical 
zone. 

The  bamboo  plant  with  its  numerous  stalks  and  delicate 
foliage  resembles  a  plume  of  giant  ostrich  feathers.  The  stems 
attain  heights  of  seventy  feet  and  diameters  of  four  and  six 
inches  (see  Fig.  3  plate).  Knots  or  joints  are  at  first  close 
together,  but  are  later  one  or  two  feet  apart.  Growth  is  sur- 
prisingly rapid.  A  Philippine  specimen,  which  when  meas- 
ured was  eighteen  inches  high  -and  four  inches  in  diameter, 
grew  two  feet  in  three  days  4  Florida  stalks  have  reached 
heights  of  seventy-two  feet  in  a  single  season.  §  The  plants 
are  apt  to  take  complete  possession  of  the  ground  on  which 
they  grow.  Those  who  use  bamboo  value  it  highly.  It  is 
employed  entire  or  else  split  into  segments.  Some  can  be 

*  Grasses,  "one  of  the  largest  and  probably  one  of  the  most  useful  groups  of 
plants  ____  If  grass-like  sedges  be  associated  ----  there  are  about  6000  species, 
representing  nearly  one  third  of  the  Monocotyledons."    (Coulter,  " 
241.)     The  various  pasture-grasses,   cereals,  and  sugar-canes  are  here  inclu 
Bamboos  and  canes  are  distinct  in  that  thev  afford  structural  materials. 

\  B.  E.  Fernow  notes  (p.  29,  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  n):  "In  addition  to 
bambusa,  the  genera  Arundinaria,  Arundo,  Dendrocalamus,  and  Guadua  are  the 
most  important."      All  of  tribe  Bambusae. 

J  Frederic  H.  Sawyer.  Memb.  Inst.  C.  E.,  "Inhabitants  of  the  Philippines, 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons.  1900  (p.  5). 

§Page  29,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  II. 

190 


I'J.ATEW.     BAMUOO  (Bambusa}. 


I'..urilxx 
J{y  the  inurtfsy  of  the  Manila  P.O.  1'arrstry  llureau. 


Bamboo  Grove,  China. 

x*  sections,  5^  inches  rliameter. 


ENDOGENOUS  SERIES,  191 

opened  and  flattened  into  rough  boards,  splitting  everywhere 
but  holding  together.*  For  vessels  it  is  cut  off  with  reference 
to  the  partitions.  The  subject  is  thus  summarized  by  Dr. 
Martin  :t  "The  Chinese  make  masts  of  it  for  their  small 
junks,  and  twist  it  into  cables  for  their  larger  ones.  They 
weave  it  into  matting  for  floors,  and  make  it  into  rafters  for 
roofs.  They  sit  at  table  on  bamboo  chairs,  eat  shoots  of 
bamboo  with  bamboo  chop-sticks.  The  musician  blows  a 
bamboo  flute,  and  the  watchman  beats  a  bamboo  rattle. 
Criminals  are  confined  in  a  bamboo  cage  and  beaten  with 
bamboo  rods.  Paper  is  made  of  bamboo  fibre,  and  pencils  of 
a  joint  of  bamboo  in  which  is  inserted  a  tuft  of  goat's  hair." 

The  manipulation  of  this  valuable  material  is  not  yet 
understood  in  America.  Prof.  Johnson  notes  $  that  the  wood 
of  ' '  bamboo  is  just  twice  as  strong  as  the  strongest  wood  in 
cross-bending,  weight  for  weight,  when  the  wood  is  taken  in 
specimens,  with  a  square  and  solid  cross-section."  Dr.  Fernow 
considers  the  bamboo  worthy  of  extensive  trial  throughout  the 
Gulf  region. § 

*  Prof.  Isaac  F.  Holton,  "New  Granada,"  Harper  Bros.,  New  York,  1857  (p. 
109). 

f  "  Cycle  of  Cathay,"  Fleming  H.  Revell  Co.,  1899  (p.  172). 

J  Materials  of  Construction,  1897,  p.  689. 

§  Henry  G.  Hubbard,  U.  S.  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  n,  A.  B.  Mitford. 

"The  Bamboo  Garden,"  Macmillan,  1896.  Kurz,  "Bamboo  and  its  Uses," 
Calcutta,  1876. 

"Bamboo  as  substitute  for  Wood,"  Fernow,  p.  203,  6th  Annual  Report. 


I92  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOOD 

Bamboo.  Bambusa  vulgar  is. 

Nomenclature. 

Bamboo  local  and  common  name. 

Locality. 

Florida  (acclimated). 

Features  of  Tree. 

Seventy-five  feet  in  height,  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter. 
Delicate  branches  and  leaves.  Greenish  glazed  jointed  stem, 
extensive  roots. 

Color,  Appearance,  or  Grain  of  Wood. 

Yellowish  brown,  conspicuously  fibrous,  moderately  thin  walls, 
central  canal  broken  by  joints. 

Structural  Qualities  of  Wood. 
Light,  elastic,  works  easily. 

Representative  Uses  of  Wood. 

Posts,  poles,  utensils,  troughs,  pipes,  roofing,  paper. 

Weight  of  Seasoned  Wood  in  Pounds  per  Cubic  Foot. 
Variable. 

Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

2,380,000  (Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  689). 
>dulus  of  Runture. 


Modulus  of  Rupture. 


27 
Remarks. 


,400  (Johnson's  "  Materials  of  Construction,"  p.  689). 

arks 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abies 140,  I56 

balsamea 156,  157 

concolor 136,  156.  159 

grandis 156,  158 

magnified 160 

nobilis 161 

taxifolia 154 

Acacia 77 

False 78 

Three-thorned 78 

Acer 40 

dasycarpum 43 

macrophyllum 45 

negundo <. 46 

pseudo-platanus 40,  65 

rubrum   44 

saccharinum 43 

saccharum 42 

ALsculus 96 

flava    98 

glabra 97 

hippocastanum 96,  97 

octandra 98 

Alburnum 7 

Algaroba 79 

Alligator-wood 100 

Apple 27 

Apple-tree  (Osage) 113 

Arborvitse   168,  171,  172 

Giant 172 

Pacific 175 

Arbutus 1 08 

menziesii 108,  1 10 

Arundinaria 190 

Arundo 190 

Ash 27,  29,  33 

American  29 

Black 28,  29,  32,  46 

Blue 31,  33 

Brown 30 

Cane 29 

Green 27,  33 


Ash,  Hoop 32 

Mountain 27 

Oregon 34. 

Prickly 27 

Red 30 

River ....  30 

Second-growth   28. 

Swamp   32,  3S 

Stinking 46- 

Sugar 46 

Water 32,  33,  46 

White 27,  29,  33. 

Yellow 27 

Aspen 81 

Large  American 83 

Quaking 83. 

B 

Balluck 128 

Balm 85 

Balm  of  Gilead 

Fir 

Balsam 

Canada 

He 

White 

Balsam  Fir 136 

Balsam  Tree 159 

Bamboo 190,  192 

Bambusa igo 

vulgaris iq2 

Bass 81 

Basswood 80,  87 

White    87 

Yellow 87 

Bast 87 

Bay  Rose 108 

Bay  Tree 109 

California 109 

Bayonet,  Spanish 188 

Bay  wood 1 20 

Beech 60,  62, 

193 


194 


INDEX. 


Beech,  Blue 60,  63 

Red 62 

Ridge 62 

Water. 63 

White 62 

Bee-tree 81,  87 

JBetula 68 

lenta 74,  Hi 

lutea 73 

nigra 72 

papyri/era 7  * 

populifolia 7° 

Big-bud 54 

Big  Tree 161,  180,  182 

California 1 80,  182 

Birch 68,  72 

Black 72,  74 

Blue 72 

Canoe 71 

Cherry Hi 

Gray 70,  73 

Large  White 7 l 

Mahogany 74 

Oldfield 70 

Paper     .    71 

Poplar-leaved 7° 

Poverty 7<-> 

Red 72 

River 72,  74 

Silver 71,  73 

Small  White 70 

Swamp 73 

Sweet 74,  m 

Water 72 

White 70,  71 

Bitternut 53 

Blisted ioo 

Blue  Lin 86 

Boc oo 

Bodark H3 

Bodock. H3 

Bois  Puant 91 

Bois  D'  Arc 1 1 1 ,  H3 

Bok 6° 

Boleau 71 

Botanical  Name I 

Bow-wood I J3 

Boxeluer 46 

Boxwood 103,  106,  108 

New  England 106 

Box,  False  (Dogwood) 106 

BROADLEAF   TREES 10 

WOODS 10 

Buche 60 

Buckeye 96>  97,  98 

Big 98 

Fetid 97 

Large 98 


Buckeye,  Ohio 97 

Stinking 97 

Sweet 98 

Yellow 98 

Bullnut 54 

Bumelia 61 

tenax 6 1 

lycioides 6 1 

Burl 47 

Buttonball 66,  67 

Buttonball  tree 66,  67 

Button  wood 66,  67 


Canoewood 82 

Carpmus 60 

caroliniana 60,  63 

Gary  a 51 

alba 52 

olivceformis 55 

porcina 53 

tomentosa 54 

Castanea 56 

dent  at  a 58 

pumila 56,  59 

vesca 58 

vesca  var.  americana 58 

vulgaris  var.  americana 58 

Castanopsis  chrysopylla 57-59 

Catalpa 90,  91,  92 

Catalpa 90 

bignonioides 92 

catalpa 92 

speciosa 91 

Catawba 92 

Catawba  Tree 92 

Cajeput 109 

Calico  Bush 108 

Cedar .  167,  169,  170,  171,  172 

Atlantic  Red 171 

Bastard 176 

California  Poet 177 

California  White 177 

Canoe 168,  172 

Cuban 122 

Giant 172 

Giant  Red 172 

Incense 168,  176 

Lebanon 167 

Mexican 122 

Oregon 1 74 

Pacific  Red 172 

Pencil 169 

Port  Orford 168,  174 

Post 173,  176 

Red 167,  168,  169,  172.  176 

Southern 169 

Spanish 119.  122,  168 

Swamp 173 


INDEX. 


195 


Cedar,  Western 170,  172 

Western  Red 169,  170 

White..    167,  168,  171,  173,  174,  176 

Yellow 168,  170,  175 

Cedrela 1 18 

australis 122 

odorata 122 

toona 122 

Cedrtts 167 

libani 167 

Cell  Structures 2 

Census  U.  S.  Experiments 4 

Cercocarpus  breviflorus 1 18 

ledifolius 1 18 

parvifolius 1 18 

Chamcecyparis 167,  177 

lawsoniana 168,  174 

nootkatensis 175 

nutkansis 168,  175 

thy  aides 168,   1 73 

Chene  etoile 16 

Chene  Vert 23 

Cherry HI,  114 

Black 114 

Choke 1 14 

Rum 114 

Whisky 114 

Wild in,  114 

Wild  Black Hi,  114 

Cherry  Birch 74 

Chestnut 56,  58 

Horse  Chestnut 96,  97 

Chinquapin 56,  59 

Cigar-tree   91,  92 

Indian 92 

Cladrastis  lutt-a 27 

Cliftonia  monophylla 6 1 

Coefficients 3 

Conifers 9,  129 

Coniferous  Trees 129 

Coniferous  Woods 129 

Confederate  Pintree 78 

Cornel 106 

Flowering 106 

Cornus 103 

florida 106 

Cotton  Tree 84 

Cottonwood 80,  84,  85 

Balm 85 

Balsam 85 

Big 84 

Black 85 

Broadleaved 84 

Yellow 84 

Crab  Apple 27 

Cross-section 8 

Cucumber 86 

Cucumber-tree 80,  82,  86 

Cupressus 177 


Cupressus  goveniana 177 

macrocarpa 177 

Cypress 167,  177,  179 

American 179 

Bald 178,  179 

Black 179 

Deciduous 179 

Gowan 177 

Monterey 177 

Red 179 

Southern 179 

Swamp 179 

White 179 

D 

Dagger,  Spanish , 188 

Dammar  a  australis 146,  147 

Date  Plum 112 

Date,  Wild 187 

Deal . . .  145,  149 

Deciduous  Trees 7 

Deciduous  Woods 7 

Dendrocalamns 190 

DICOTYLEDONS 6,  7 

Diospyros in 

virginiana in,  112 

Dogwood 103,  106 

Flowering 106 

Douglas  Tree 155 

Duramen 7 


Ebony HI 

jEbenacece HI 

Elm 35,  36,  39 

American 36 

Cliff 37 

Cork 37,  39 

Hickory 37 

Moose 38 

Mountain 39 

Red , 38,  39 

Redwooded 38 

Rock 37,  38 

Slippery 38 

Small-leaved 39 

Wahoo 39 

Water 36,  39 

White 36,  37 

Wing 39 

Winged 39 

Witch 39 

Encena 24 

ENDOGENS 6,183 

ENDOGENOUS  TREES 6,  183 

ENDOGENOUS  WOODS.   ...  6,  183 

Evergreen 9,  129 

Evergreen  Trees 9,  129 


196 


INDEX. 


Evergreen  Woods 9,  129 

Eucalyptus 123 

colossea    126 

diversicolor 123,  126 

globulus 123,  128 

gomphocephala 123,  127 

Eucalyptus  marginata 123,  125 

EXOGENS 7 

EXOGENOUS  TREES 7 

EXOGENOUS  WOODS 7 

Exothea  paniculata 61 


fagus   60 

atropunicea 62 

ferruginea 62 

False  Box 106 

Feather-cone 161 

Fever  Tree 128 

Fibre 2 

Ficus  sycamorus 65 

Fig-tree 65 

Fir 149,  155,  156 

Balsam 136,  156,  157,159 

California  Red 160 

California  Red-bark 160 

California  White 159 

Colorado  White 159 

Concolor  White 159 

Dantzic 145 

Douglas 155 

Feather-cone    161 

Golden 160 

Great  Silver 158 

Lowland 158 

Magnificent 160 

Memel 145 

Noble 161 

Noble  Red   161 

Noble  Silver 161 

Northern 145 

Oregon  White 158 

Prince  Albert's 163 

Red 155,  160,  161 

Rigi 145 

Scots 145 

Scottish , 145 

Shasta 160 

Silver 156,  158,  159 

Stettin 145 

Swedish 145 

Tree 157 

Western  Hemlock 163 

Western  White 158 

White 156,  158,  159 

Yellow 158 

Forestry  Division  Experiments...  4 

Fraxinus 27 


Fraxinus,  americana 29 

lanceolata 27,  33 

nigra 32 

oregona 34 

pubescens 30 

pennsylvanica 30 

quadrangulata 31 

sambucifolia 32 

•viridis 33 


Gallic  Acid 12 

Generic  Name i 

Gleditsia 75 

triacanthos 75,  78 

Gopher  Wood 27 

Gum 99,  100,  101 

Black 101,  160 

Blue 123,  128 

Cotton 102 

Kauri 147 

Mahogany 125 

Red 100 

Satin 100 

Sour 99,  101,  102 

Star-leaved 100 

Sweet 99,  100 

Tree 100,  123 

Tupelo 101,  102 

Walnut 100 

White 126,  127 

Yellow  (Gum)  Tree 101 

Great  Laurel 106,  108 

Greenheart 115,  117 

Guajacum   103 

ar  barium 107 

officinale 104,  107 

sanctum 61,  104,  107 

Guadua 1 90 

H 

Hackmatack 165,  166 

Hardhack 64 

Hardshell 53 

HARDWOODS 9,  10 

Heartwood 7 

He  Balsam 150 

Hedge 113 

Hedge-plant. 113 

Hemlock 149,  162,  163 

Carolina 163 

Southern 163 

Western 1 63 

Hicoria , 51 

alba 54 

glabra 53 

ovata 52 


INDEX. 


197 


Hicoria  pecan 55 

Hickory 51,  54 

Black   53,  54 

Brown 53 

Common 54 

Hardbark 54 

(Hickory  Nuts) 51,  52,  54 

Hognut 54 

Mockernut 54 

Pecan 55 

Pignut 53 

Red 53,  54 

Scaly  bark 52 

Second-growth 51 

Shagbark 52 

Shellbark 52 

Switch-bud 53 

Upland 52 

White 52,  53,  54 

Holly 103,  105 

American 105 

White 105 

Honey 78 

Honey  Pod 79 

Honey  Shucks 78 

Hornbeam 60,  63,  64 

Horse  Chestnut 96,  97 


Ilex 103 

opaca 103,  105 

aquifolium 103 

Indian  Cigar  Tree 92 

Indian-bean 91,  92 

Iron-bark 123 

Ironwood 60,  63,  64,  79,  107 


Jarrah 123,  125 

Joshua  (The) 189 

Tree 188,  189 

Juglans 47 


nigra 49 

regia 47,  49 

Juniper 165,  167,  169,  170,  176 

Red 169 

Western 170 

Juniper  Bush . . , 169 

Jtmiperus 167 

barbadensis 167,  168,  169 

accident  alls 167,  168,  170 

scopnlorum 167,  168,  169 

virginiana 167,  it>8,  169 

K 

Kalmia  latifolia 108 

Karri 123,  126 


Kauri  Gum 146,  147 

Kauri  Pine 146,  147 


Lanza  Experiments 5 

Larch 161,  164,  165 

American 165 

American  Western 166 

Black 165 

Great  Western 166 

Red 165 

Tamarack 166 

Western 166 

Larix r  64 

americana 164,  165 

laricina 165 

occidentalis 164,  166 

Laurel 106,  108,  109,  1 10 

Big 108 

California 109 

Great  106.  108 

Madrofia 108,  1 10 

Mountain 108,  109 

Laurel  wood no 

Lazlett  Experiments 5 

Leverwood 64 

Libocedrus 167,  168 

decurrens 168,  1 76 

Lignumvitae 103,  107 

Lime 81 

Lime  Tree 81,  87 

Black 87 

Smooth-leaved 87 

Linn ....    87 

Lin,  Black 86 

Lind 81 

White 87 

Linden 81,  87 

American    87 

Liriodendron 80 

tulipifera 80,  82 

Liquidamber 99,  100 

Liqiddamber 99 

styraciflua 99,  100 

Locust 75,  77,  78 

Black 75,  77,  78 

Green 77 

Honey 75,  77,  78,  79 

Honey  Shucks 78 

Pea  Flower 77 

Post 77 

Red 77 

Screw  Pod 76 

Sweet 78 

Thorn 78 

Thorny 78 

White 77 

Yellow 77 


198 


INDEX. 


M 

PAGE 

Madura in 

aurantiaca i  n,  113 

Madeira 120 

Madrona 108,  1 10 

Madrone  Tree no 

Madrove no 

Magnolia   108 

Mountain 86 

Magnolia 80,  108 

grandiflora 108 

acuminata 86 

Mahogany 1 18,  120 

African 1 18.  120 

American 118,  120 

Cuban 118,120 

Honduras 1 18,  120 

Indian 1 18 

Mexican 1 18,  120 

Mountain 74,  1 18 

San  Domingan 1 18,  120 

Spanish 1 18,  120 

White 50,  119,  121 

Mammoth  Trees 180,  182 

Manzanita no 

Maple 40,  45 

Ash-leaved 46 

Bird's-eye  ...    40,  42 

Black 42 

Blister 40,  42 

Broad-leaved 45 

Curly 40,  42,  43,  44 

Cut- leaved „ 46 

Hard 42 

(Maple  Keys) 41 

Negundo 41,  46 

Oregon 45 

Red 44 

Red  River 46 

River 43 

Rock 42 

Silver 43 

Soft 43,  44 

Swamp 43.  44 

Sugar  (Sugar  Maple) 42 

(Maple  Sugar).  41,  42,  43,  44,  46,  50 

Water 43>  44 

White 43,  44 

Three-leaved 46 

Medullary  Rays 8 

Merisier 73 

Mesquite 75.    79 

Rouge     .    73 

Mockernut 54 

Mock  Orange 113 

Moduli! 3 

MONOCOTYLEDONS 6,  185 

Mortis 93 

alba 93 


Morus,  nigra 93 

™bra 93,  95 

Mulberry 93,  95 

B1ack 93,  95 

Rwl 93,  95 

Russian 93 

White 93 

Mulberry-tree,  Virginia 95 

Murier  Sauvage 95 

Myrtle  Tree 109 


N 


Naval  Stores 132 

Nectanara ,..  115 

rodiali 115,  117 

Needleleaf  Conifers 9,  129 

Trees 9,  129 

Woods 9,  129 

Negunao  aceroides 46 

Neowashingtoniafilainentosa 187 

Noble  Silver  Fir 161 

JVyssa 99 

aquatica 102 

sylvatica     99,  101 


O 


Oak Ir 

African n6 

Basket 14 

Black 12,  19,  22 

Box 16 

Box  White 16 

Brash 16 

British II,  26 

Bur 12,  17 

California  Live 12,  24 

California  Post 18 

Canyon 25 

Canyon  Live 25 

Chene  etoile 16 

Chene  Vert 23 

Chestnut 12,  15,  26 

Coast  Live .  .    . .      24 

Common 26 

Cow 12,  14 

Dantzic 26 

Durmast 26 

Dyer's.  ...    22 

Encina 24 

English n,  26 

Evergreen 24 

Highland 25 

Indian 115,  n6 

Iron 16,  25 

Live n,  12,  23,  24,  25 

Maul 25 

Mossy  cup 17 


INDEX. 


199 


Oak,  Mossycup  White 17 

Mountain    15 

Oregon  White 18 

Overcup 16,  17 

Pacific  Post 12,  1 8 

Pin 12,  20 

Post 12,  16 

Quercitron 22 

Red 12,  19,  21,  26 

Rigi 26 

Rock 15 

Rock  Chestnut 15 

Scrub   17 

Spanish 12,  19,21 

Spotted 22 

Stave 13 

Swamp 20 

Swamp  Chestnut 14,  15 

Swamp  Spanish 20 

Swamp  White 14 

Tanbark 15,  22 

Water 2O 

Water  Spanish 20 

Western  White 18 

White u,  12,  13,  16,  18 

Valparaiso 25 

Yellow 12,22 

Yellowbark 22 

Oil  Nut 50 

Oldfieldia  africana 115,116 

Olive  California 109 

Olivctree 102 

Wild 102 

Olneya  terota 6l 

Orange.  Mock 113 

Oreodaphne 109 

Oredoya  regia 1 85 

Osage in,  113 

Osage  Apple  Tree 113 

Osage  Orange in,  113 

Ostrya 60 

•virginiana 60,  64 


Palm 185 

California  Fan 187 

Desert 187 

Fanleaf 185,  187 

Royal 185 

Sargent 185 

Washington 187 

PALMACEA 185 

Palmetto 186 

Cabbage 185,  186 

Mexican 1815 

Silvertop 185 

Silktop 185 

Tree iS6 


Papyrus 60 

Peaflower  (Locust) 77 

Pear 27 

Wild   101 

Pecan 55 

Nut 55 

Tree 55. 

Pecanier. 51 

Pepperidge 101 

Persimmon m,  112 

Black io6> 

Mexican 106- 

Picea 148,  149 

alba 148,  151 

canadensis 151 

excelsa 1 48 

engelmanni 148,  152 

tnariana • 150 

nigra 148,  150 

rubens 150 

sitchensis 153, 

Pignut 53 

Pine 130,  135,  149,  151 

Alaska 163 

Bastard 139,  141,  159 

Big 136,  142 

Black    141,  144 

Black  Norway 144 

Black  Slash 141 

Blister 157 

Brown 138. 

Hull 135,  140,  141,  143 

Canadian  Red 143 

Carolina 140 

Common  Yellow .    140 

Cornstalk 141 

Cowdie 147 

Cuban 132,  133,  139 

Dantzic 133.  145 

Douglas 154.  155 

European 133,  1 45 

Fat 138,  144 

Finger  Cone 137 

FiV 157 

Florida    138 

Florida  Longleaved. 138 

Florida  Yellow 138 

Foothills  Yellow 142 

Foxtail 141 

Frankincense 141 

Georgia 138 

Georgia  Heart 138 

Georgia  Longleaved 138 

Georgia  Pitch 138 

Georgia  Yellow 138 

Gigantic 136 

Ginger 174 

Great  Sugar 136 

Hard. ......  133,  139,  140,  143-  144 


200 


INDEX. 


Pine,  Heart 138 

Heavy 142 

Heavy-wooded 142 

Indian 141 

Kauri 146,  147 

Little  Sugar 136,  137 

Loblolly 133,  141 

Longleaf. 133,  138,  139 

Longleaved 142.  144 

Longleaved  Pitch 138 

Longleaved  Yellow   . .    138 

Longshat 141 

Longshucks 141 

Longstraw 138,  141 

Meadow '. . . .  139,  141 

Montana  Black 142 

Mountain 137 

Mountain  Weymouth 137 

Northern 133,  134,  145 

North  Carolina 140 

North  Carolina  Pitch 138 

North  Carolina  Yellow 140 

Norway 143 

Oldfield 140,  141 

Oregon 154,  155 

Pitch. . .  133,  138,  139,  140,  142,  144 

Poor 140 

Puget  Sound 155 

Pumpkin 134 

Red 142,  143,  155 

Rigid 144 

Rocky  Mountain  White 135 

Sap 141,  144 

Scotch 145 

Shade 136 

She 139 

She  Pitch 139 

Shortleaf 133,  140,  141 

Shortleaved  Yellow 140 

Shortshat 140 

Silver 157 

Slash 139,  140,  141 

Soft 130,  131,  134,  137 

Southern. 133,  138 

Southern  Hard 138 

Southern  Heart 138 

Southern  Pitch. 138 

Southern  Yellow 138,  142 

Spruce 134,  140,  141,  163 

Swamp 139,  141 

Texas  Longleaved 138 

Texas  Yellow 138 

Torch 141 

Turpentine 138 

Virginia 141 

Virginia  Yellow 140 

Western  Pitch 142 

Western  White 131,  135,  137 

Western  Yellow     142 


Pine,  Weymouth    133,  134 

White 131,  134,  135,  136,  137 

Yellow.  133,  138,  140,  141,  142,  144 

Pintree,    Confederate 78 

Pinus 130,  149 

echinata 132,   133,  140 

flexilis 131,  135 

heterophylla 132,  133,  139 

lambertiana 131,  136 

mitis 132,  140 

monticola 137 

palustris 132,  133,  138,  139 

ponderosa 142 

resinosa 143 

rigida 1 44 

slrobus 131.  134 

sylvestris 145 

tceda 132,  133,   141 

Piquant  armourette 78 

Pith  Cavity 7 

Pith  Ray 2,  8 

Plane  Tree 65 ,  66 

Platane  Cotonier 66 

Plat  anus 65 

occidentalis 65,  66 

orientalis 65 

racemosa 65,  67 

Plaqueminier 112 

Plum,  Date 112 

Poplar 80,  82,  83,  157 

Blue 82 

Hickory 82 

Large 83 

Large  Toothed .     83 

Necklace 84 

Tulip 80,  82 

White 83 

Yellow 82 

Popple   82,  83 

Populus 80 

balsamifera 157 

deltoides 84 

grandidentata 83 

monilifera 84 

tremuloides 8l,  83 

trichocarpa 85 

Powcohicora 51 

Possumwood 1 22 

Prima  vera 119,  121 

Prosopis 75 

juliflora 61,  79 

odor  at  a 76 

Prunus in 

serotina 111,114 

Pseudophoenix  sargentii 185 

Pseudotsuga 154 

douglasii 156 

taxifolia 155 

Pyrus 28 


INDEX. 


201 


Pyrns    americana 28 

ancuparia 28 

communis 28 

coronaria 28 

malus .    28 

sanibucifolia 28 

•vulgaris 28 


Quarter  Sawing   ....    9 

Quercitron 22 

Querctts 1 1 

agrifolia 12,  24 

alba 12,  13 

chrysolepis 12,  25 

digitata 12,  21 

falcata 21 

garryana 12,  18 

macrocarpa 12,  17 

michauxii 12,  14 

minor 12,  16 

obttisiloba 16 

palustris 12,  2O 

prinus    12,  15 

robur 1 2 

robur  var.  sessiliflora 12,  26 

robur  var.  pedunculata 12,  26 

rtt^rrt    12,  19 

tinctoria 22 

velutina 12,  22 

wrens . 23 

virginiana 12,  23 

wislizeni 25 

Quince 27 


R 


Radial  Section 8 

Red  Flower 44 

Redwood 120,  145,  180,  182 

California 182 

Coast, 182 

Giant 182 

Resin 132 

Resin  ducts 2,  10 

Rhododendron  maximum 106,  108 

Rhus  integrifoiia 118 

Robinia 75 

pseudacacia 75,  77 

Rose  Bay 108 

Rotary  Cut 9 

Rowan  Tree 27 


Sabal  mexicana 185 

palmetto 185,  186 

Salicylic  Acid 74,  88 


Salix 88 

alba 88 

babylonica 88 

caprea 88 

fragilis 88 

nigra 89 

russeliana 88 

Sapwood 7 

Sargent  (Prof.  C.  S.)  Experiments.  4 

Sassafac 94 

Sassafrac 94 

Sassafras 93>  94 

Caliofrnia 109 

Sassafras 93 

ojficinale 94 

sassafras 94 

Savin 169 

Saxifrax 94 

Tree 94 

Sch<zfft'ria  frutescens loo 

Sequoia 183 

Sequoia 180 

gigantea 182 

sempervirens 180,  182 

•washingtoniana 180,  182 

Shagbark 52 

Sharp  less  ( J.  P.)  Experiments 4 

Shawneewood 91 

Shellbark 52 

Shinglewood 172 

Simmon 1 12 

Smoking-bean 92 

SOFT  WOODS 9,  129 

Sorbus  (see  Pyrus] 28 

Soymida 1 18 

febrifuga 118 

Spanish  Bayonet 188 

Spanish  Dagger 188 

Species 2 

Specific  Gravity 4 

Specific  Name 2 

Spice-tree ' .    .  109 

Spruce 148,  149,  150,  154,  155,  163 

Black 148.  150 

Blue 150 

Bog 151 

California  Hemlock  Spruce 163 

Cat 151 

Cork-barked  Douglas 155 

Double 150,  151 

Douglas 154,  155 

Engelmann 152 

Great  Tideland 153 

He  Balsam 150 

Hemlock 163 

Menzies' 153 

Mountain 152 

Red 150 

Single 157 


202 


INDEX. 


Spruce,  Sitka 1 53 

Skunk I51 

Tideland 153 

Water 15° 

Western 153 

White 150,  152 

Stinkwood 101 

Strength  of  Woods 3 

Stringy-bark 123 

Sugar 41,  42,  44,  46,  5° 

Sugar  Tree 42 

Swietenia 1 18 

mahagoni, 1 18,  120 

Sycamore 40,  65,  66,  67 

California 67 


Tabeitia  Donnell-Smithii 121 

Tamarack 164,  165,  166 

Western 166 

Tanbark 2 

Tangential  Section 8 

Tar 132 

Taxodium 177 

distichum 178 

Teak 115,  1 1 6 

African 115 

Indian 115 

Teek .-   n6 

Tectona  grandis 115.  116 

Tewart 127 

Thorn ?8 

Thnnax  microcarpa 185 

parviflora 185 

Thuya 167 

gigantea 168,  1 72 

occidcntalis 168,  171 

plicata I?2 

Tiel 81 

Tiel-tree 81 

Tilia 80 

americana 87 

heterophylla 87 

Tooart 127 

Toothache  Tree 27 

Toxylon  pomiferum 113 

Tracheid 2 

Tsuga 149.  l62 

canadensis 163 

caroliniana 163 

heterophylla 163 

Tree i 

Tree  Yucca 188 

Tuart 123,  127 

Tulip-tree 80,  82 

Tupelo 101,  102 

Large 102 

Swamp 102 

Turpentine I32 


U 


Ulmus 35 

americana 36 

alata 39 

fulva 38 

racemosa 37 

pubescens 38 

Umbellularia  calif ornica 108,  109 

U.  S.  Census  Experiments 4 

U.    S.    Forestry    Division   Experi- 
ments    4 


Veneer 42,  47,  119 

Vessel 2 

Vitae 171 


W 


Wahoo 39 

Whahoo 39 

Walnut 47,  49,  5°,  52 

Black 47,  49 

English 47 1  49 

Persian 47,  49 

Royal 47,  49 

Shagbark 52 

Sweet 52 

White 5° 

Washingtonia  filifera 185.  187 

Watertown  Arsenal  Experiments. .       4 

Weights  of  Woods 3 

White  Mahogany 5° 

Whitewood 80,  82,  84,  87 

Wickup 87 

Wild  Date 187 

Wild  Olive  Tree 102 

Wild  Pear  Tree 101 

Willow 88,  89 

Bedford 88 

Black 89 

Crack 88 

Goat 88 

Swamp   89 

Weeping 88 

White 88 


X 

Xanthoxylum  americana . 
clava-herculh 


27 
27 


Yellowbark 22 

Yellow  Gum  Tree 101 

Yellowwood 106.  113.  145 


INDEX. 


203 


Yucca 184,  188,  189 

Aloe-leaf 188 

Breadfruit 188 

Cactus 189 

Mohave 188 

Schott i8g 

Tree 188,  189 

Yucca 188,  189 


Yucca,  aloifolia 
arborescens 
brevifolia 
constricta 
gloriosa 
macrocarpa 
mohaveiisis 
treculeana. . . 


PACK 

....  188 
188,  189 
188,  189 

188 

188 

188 

188 

....    188 


y" 


Engineering 
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